Concept of Conflict and Conflict Management

 

 Concept of Conflict and Conflict Management

Concept of Conflict

Conflict is a necessary and useful part of organisational life. It is inevitable, multi-dimensional, and an integral part of the process of change. According to Mba (2013), there are two sides to conflict, one is destructive, defects cooperation and unhealthy and the other has a problem-solving base where those involved are willing to readdress personality differences, to listen to others’ views and to be open and candid to each other, to be supportive and helpful.

Conflict can be referred to as the process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected something that the first party cares about (Thomasas 2017), which indicates that conflict must be perceived by either of the parties. In the same vein, Robbins (2012) views conflict as a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected or is about to negatively affect something that the first party cares about. This definition is encompassing as it describes that point in any ongoing activity when an interaction crosses over to become an interparty conflict. It encompasses the wide range of conflicts people experience in organisations: such as incompatibility of goals, differences over interpretations of facts, disagreements based on behavioural expectations. The definition is flexible enough to cover the full range of conflict levels starting from overt and violent acts to subtle forms of disagreement.

 

In the words of Oudeh and Oudeh (2016), conflict occurs in every type of relationship. It occurs whenever our assumptions or expectations do not match with someone else’s assumptions or expectations. Conflict is perception and so it exists whenever someone believes or feels that another person or group might obstruct his efforts.

 

Ojo and Abolade (2014) views conflict as a situation of competition in which the parties are aware of the incomparability of potential future position in which each party wishes to occupy a position that is incompatible with the wishes of the other and views organisational conflict as competition by individuals and groups for organisational resources and organisational rewards. Mullins (2005) affirms that conflict as a behaviour is intended to obstruct the achievement of some other person’s goals. According to this author, conflict is based on the incompatibility of goals and arises from opposing behaviours. It can be viewed at the individual, group or organisational level.

 

Aina, Awolusi and Odulami (2015) asserts that organisational conflict can be regarded as a dispute that occurs when interest, goals or values of different individuals or groups are incompatible with each other. According to Zafar, Ashfaq, Ali, and Imran (2014) conflict is a process of social interaction involving a struggle over claims to resources, power and status, beliefs, and other preferences and desires. The aims of the parties in conflict may extend from simply attempting to gain acceptance of a preference, or securing a resource advantage, to the extremes of injuring or eliminating opponents. Conflict is perceived as any act or situation resulting from disagreement, incompatibility or opposition between project participants within their contractual obligations, whereby such disagreements, incompatibility or opposition have not matured into a dispute requiring intervention of a third party.

 

 Rahim (2011) defines conflict as an interactive process manifested in incompatibility, disagreement, or dissonance within or between social entities (individual, group and organisations) and opined that conflict may occur when:

i.                   A party is required to engage in an activity that is incongruent with his or her needs or interests.

ii.                 A party holds behavioral preferences, the satisfaction of which is incompatible with another person's implementation of his or her preferences.

iii.              A party wants some mutually desirable resource that is in short supply, such that the wants of everyone may not be satisfied fully.

iv.              A party possesses attitudes, values, skills, and goals that are salient in directing his or her behavior but are perceived to be exclusive of the attitudes, values, skills, and goals held by the other(s).

v.                 Two parties have partially exclusive behavioral preferences regarding their joint actions.

vi.              Two parties are interdependent in the performance of functions or activities.

This definition is much more inclusive, which implies that conflict can relate to incompatible preferences, goals, and not just activities. From the above definitions, conflict tends to be associated with negative features and situations which gives rise to inefficiency, ineffectiveness or dysfunctional consequences.

         Causes of Organisational Conflict

For conflict to be effectively managed, organisations should try as much as possible to look into its root causes. Many organisations in trying to resolve conflict result to conflict management techniques without first determining the causes of conflict, which is a key prerequisite for developing an appropriate conflict resolution.

 

Tonder, Havenga and Visagie (2018) argued that if the causes of conflict are known and understood, a conflict map can be developed, which could guide conflict management processes. According to the authors, conflict could arise because of the employer’s quest to maximise profit while employees are out to ensure continuous improved condition of living. It could also arise as a result of failure to honour agreed items on joint decision made and also due to differences about interpretation of facts or issues involved. As a result, rigid opposition due to incompatibility of organisational goals characterises it. However, Robbins (2018) identify that there are many sources of conflict as follows:

a.     Poor Communication: Poor communication leads to misunderstanding and strife among employees. Conveying wrong information can lead to projects being incorrectly done and to employees blaming each other for the end result. Problem in the communication process do not act to retard collaboration, stimulate misunderstandings and create conflicts and many conflict attributed to poor communication are on closer examination due to value differences.

 

b.     Personality Conflict: This occurs when no two people are exactly alike. Personality clashes in the workplace are unavoidable because one employee may have a reserved personality while another may be more outgoing and forward. Problems arise when the two do not understand or respect each other’s inner nature. Personality clashes can also occur when an individual is highly authoritarian and dogmatic.

c.      Differing Values: Value differences are the best explanation of diverse issues such as prejudice, disagreements over one’s contribution to a group, the rewards one deserves and assessments of whether a particular thing is of any good. It is important to note that differences in culture, upbringing, race, experience, education, occupation, socio-economic class and other environmental factors can be a source of differing values. Management should set and communicate the values hierarchy for the organisation.

d.     Limited Resources: Most organisational resources are limited and individuals and groups have to fight for his share especially when making allocation for next year budget. The greater the limited resources than usual, the greater the potential for conflict. These resources could be financial, human, material and informational resources.

e.      Environmental Change: Changes in an organisation’s external environment such as shift in demand, increased competition, government intervention, new technology or changing social values can cause major conflict.

f.       Structural Factors: Structure include variables such as size, degree of specialization in the tasks assigned to group members, jurisdictional clarity, member-goal compatibility, leadership styles, reward systems and the degree of dependence between groups. Size and specialization act as forces to stimulate conflict. The larger the group and the more specialized its activities, the greater the likelihood of conflict. The potential for conflict tend to be greatest when group members are younger and when turnover is high. The greater the ambiguity in precisely defining where responsibility for actions lies, the greater the potential for conflict to emerge. Such jurisdictional ambiguities increase inter-group fighting for control of resources and territory.

            Concept of Conflict Management

Conflict management is seen as a broad concept including conflict resolution, the transforming of the nature of conflict to be good and the fostering of peaceful coexistence (Mohammed, 2016). According to the author, it is a long term arrangement involving official organisation and institutions for stopping and preventing the conflict whenever it is about to arise. In other words, conflict management is the label for the variety of ways by which people handle grievances, standing up for what they consider to be right against what they consider wrong.

 

Conflict management requires a combination of analytical and human skills. It influences individual wellbeing, group performance and organisational effectiveness (Yusuf & Anuar, 2014). As such, conflict management involves doing things to limit the negative aspects of conflict and to increase the positive aspects of conflict with the aim of enhancing learning and group outcomes, including effectiveness or performance in an organisational setting (Rahim, 2011). Conflict management is deemed to be successful if it has achieved its goal by reaching a win-win approach-approach or consensual agreement which is acceptable by both parties.

 

Ezeanyim (2010) reports that conflict management is a way of managing organisational conflict so as to keep it at a level where it will not result in disorganizing the activities of an organisation thereby resulting in not allowing effective attainment of organisational objectives. Shanker (2013) opines that conflict management is the ability to work under stress and continued to be productive. According to the author, it is a process of supportive confrontation management of the organisational conflict, which is considered one of the most important and responsible job of managers.

 

Omisore and Ashimi (2014), posits that dealing with conflict between and among individuals can be one of the most frustrating and uncomfortable experiences for an administrator. Thus, any attempt by an administrator to alter a specific conflict position requires that he or she be knowledgeable of its origin. An understanding of the source improves the probability that the proper resolution or stimulation technique will be selected (Omisore & Ashimi, 2014). Violetta (2017) argues that the most important element of conflict management strategy is not only the early recognition of the conflict but the keeping of attention to the conflicting parties as these elements are important when a manager deals with functional or dysfunctional conflicts. Therefore, the effectiveness or otherwise of the management of conflict is largely dependent on how well the causes of the conflict have been understood.

 

          Strategies for Conflict Management

Whenever conflict occurs, it is important for managers to seek for ways of resolving it. Lazarus (2014) views conflict management strategies as the internal mechanisms used by various authorities in resolving conflict. Conflict researchers have identified a number of conflict management strategies that can be employed in the constructive management of conflict situations. Locke (2019) identifies techniques for handling conflict as follows: mediation (intervention of third party) and negotiation (distributive/win-lose and collaborative/win-win). Conflict between parties can also be resolved by five different modes such as: avoidance, competing, collaborating, accommodating, and compromising (Kinnander, 2011) have also describes five common approaches for managing conflict: competition, accommodation, sharing, collaboration, and avoidance.

 

In the same vein, Robbins (2018), identifies conflict handling intentions or techniques using two dimensions-cooperativeness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other party’s concerns) and assertiveness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or her own concerns). However, the five conflict handling intentions or techniques are: competing, accommodation, collaboration, compromise and avoidance.

 

For the purpose of this research, collaborating, compromise and avoidance strategies which are the independent variables for the study will be used and explained extensively.

1. Avoidance Strategy

A person may recognise that a conflict exists and wants to withdraw from it or suppress it (Ezeanyim, 2010). It is also known as withdrawing style and in this style, assertiveness and cooperativeness are low, that is, neither of the parties considers their interest in the management of conflict. People who fear conflict use the avoiding style to escape from conflict situations.

Ajike (2015) found that people using avoiding style were facing more conflicts and work stress. When this style of conflict management is used, everyone loses. The biggest disadvantage is that the issue is never directly addressed or resolved. Victor as cited in Violetta (2012) opines that this style is appropriate to use in the situation where there is no chance of winning or when disruption would be very costly. Examples of avoidance include trying to ignore a conflict and avoiding others with whom you disagree.

2.  Compromise Strategy

It is a traditional method for resolving intergroup conflicts and it is also referred to as the middle ‐of the‐ road approach. Ezeanyim (2010) opines that when each party to the conflict seeks to give up something, sharing occurs, resulting in a compromised outcome, as such there is no clear winner or loser. Rather, there is a willingness to ration the object of the conflict and accept a solution that provides incomplete satisfaction of both parties‟ concerns. The distinguishing characteristic of compromising therefore, is that each party intends to give up something. Violetta (2012), sees it as a “give-and-take” approach with moderate levels of both assertiveness and cooperativeness.

3. Collaboration Strategy: There is cooperation and the search for a mutually beneficial outcome, when each party to conflict desire to fully satisfy the concerns of all parties, that is, high concern for self and others (Ezeanyim, 2010). As such, the intentions of the parties is to solve the problem by clarifying differences rather than by accommodating various points of view through openness, exchange of information, and examination of differences to reach a solution acceptable to both parties. This strategy builds a friendly environment of an organisation where both employers and employees feel confident and free to share their knowledge or perceptions in order to make a single point, that is, reach a single decision in order to combat conflict