1. WHAT IS PROSE?
Prose is a form of literature, language or writing without metrical structure (without regular rhythm and poetic meter) as distinguish from poetry or verse. The word Prose originates from a LATIN expression prosa oratio meaning straightforward or direct speech. A Prose is characterised by chapters and paragraphs. Prose applies a natural flow of speech, and ordinary grammatical structure rather than rhythmic structure, such as that of Poetry. It is commonly used in literature, newspaper, magazines, encyclopaedias, broadcasting, film, history, philosophy, law and other forms of communication. Some types of Prose include; Non-fictional prose, Fictional prose, Heroic prose, prose poetry e.t.c.
2. DISCUSS TEN NARRATIVE TECHNIQUES IN ENGLISH.
Narratives are works that provide an account of connected events. A synonym for ‘narrative’ is ‘story’. There are many types of literature that are considered narratives, including novels, dramas, fables and theatre.
Narrative literary techniques are also known as literary devices. Narrative techniques provide deeper meaning for the reader and help the reader to use imagination to visualize situations. First, it is important to understand that literary elements in narratives include setting, plot, theme, characters, style/structure, perspective/voice, etc., since literary techniques are best understood in the context of one of these elements. Literary techniques include metaphors, similes, personification, imagery, hyperbole, alliteration, back story, flashback, flash-forward, FORESHADOWING, and narrative perspective/point of view.
1. Imagery creates visuals for the reader that appeals to our senses and usually involves figurative language: The bar was a dark, gloomy eyesore. This statement appeals to our senses to help us visualize and feel the negative aspects of this location.
2. Personification is seen when an inanimate object is given human or animal-like (living) qualities, like, The stars danced in the sky. We know stars cannot dance. This statement is an attempt to help the reader have a better picture of how the stars appeared to move in a dancing fashion.
3. Hyperbole is an over-exaggeration to make a point. You might have heard someone say, My purse weighs a ton. We know this is not to be meant in the literal sense, but it is meant to help the reader understand the excessive weight of the purse.
4. Alliteration is seen when the writer uses the same letters together in a sentence. Here is a classic example: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. Some writers use alliteration to help readers remember phrases or concepts, while some writers simply use this technique because it is ‘catchy’ and appealing to readers.
5. Backstory is used when the author feels it is important for the reader to know something that has happened prior to the actual events described in the narrative. For example, in the story of Cinderella, we learn that Cinderella’s father has lost his wife and married another woman who has two other daughters. This is important for us to understand why Cinderella is treated so differently from the other daughters. We don’t actually experience this event in the story. Instead, the narrator gives us this ‘backstory’ just before the actual first event.
6. Deus ex machina
Latin word for “God out of the machine”, this term describes the primary conflict being solved out of nowhere, as if God or a miracle could only solve the complex conflict.
7. Foreshadowing
Where future events in a story, or perhaps the outcome, are suggested by the author before they happen. This suggestion can be made in various ways such as a flashback, an object, or a previous minor situation which reflects a more significant situation later on. This sort of warning sign can also be called a red herring.
8. Hyperbole
A description which uses exaggeration to describe something smaller to sound bigger; e.g. “I told you a thousand times!” does not mean the person has been one thousand times. This watch could cause a mountain.
9. Amplification
Amplification refers to a literary practice wherein the writer embellishes the sentence by adding more information to it in order to increase its worth and understandability. When a plain sentence is too abrupt and fails to convey the full implications desired, amplification comes into play when the writer adds more to the structure to give it more meaning.
Example:
Original sentence- The thesis paper was difficult.
After amplification- The thesis paper was difficult: it required extensive research, data collection, sample surveys, interviews and a lot of fieldwork.
10. Analogy
An analogy is a literary device that helps to establish a relationship based on similarities between two concepts or ideas. By using an analogy we can convey a new idea by using the blueprint of an old one as a basis for understanding. With a mental linkage between the two, one can create understanding regarding the new concept in a simple and succinct manner.
Example; In the same way as one cannot have the rainbow without the rain, one cannot achieve success and riches without hard work.
3. WHAT IS POETRY?
Poetry is a form of literature that uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language. It is written in lines known as verse, stanzas and rhymes. The language of poetry are more technical and difficult tp understand. A writer of poems is a Poet. Some types of poetry includes Ballad, Dirge, Didatic, Lyric, Epic, Lullaby, Eulogy, Ode etc.
4. DISCUS TEN POETIC DEVICES.
POETIC DEVICES
Poetic devices are literary techniques not exclusively limited to poetry. Poetic devices are used by good writers in all professions, from novelists, to journalists, to advertisers. This is because poetic devices are pleasing to hear. The use of poetic devices is separate from the study of poetic devices. For example, someone can have an advanced perception of what words sound good next to each other without knowing the technical terms applied to these techniques (perhaps you can think of a musician to whom this description might apply). Conversely, one might have mastery of the technical terms without any ability to create original poetic assemblages.
Poetic devices are often lumped together with figurative language techniques (simile, metaphor, personification, understatement).
Poetic devices includes;
1. Alliteration
Alliteration is a literary device where words are used in quick succession and begin with letters belonging to the same sound group. Whether it is the consonant sound or a specific vowel group, the alliteration involves creating a repetition of similar sounds in the sentence. Alliterations are also created when the words all begin with the same letter. Alliterations are used to add character to the writing and often add an element of ‘fun’ to the piece..
Examples:
1. The Wicked Witch of the West went her own way. (The ‘W’ sound is highlighted and repeated throughout the sentence.)
2. Despite their mother’s warnings, the children chose to chew with their mouths open.
3.The grass grew green in the graveyard.
4. Jesus is Just, God is Great, Satan is Sinful.
Alliteration is not always so jarringly obvious. Sometimes it is very subtle, such as in the following example: Though this example is still pretty obvious, it shows that even when one word starts with a “k” and another word starts with a “c,” it is still considered an instance of alliteration. When we study alliteration, we are concerned with the sounds of the words, not just the letters.
2. Assonance
Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds. It is often used in combination with consonance and alliteration.
1. Talk loud and laugh aloud (o assonates).
2. Wake up and bake your cake (a assonates). 3. Take and lake (a assonates).
3. Consonance
Also known as near rhyme, off rhyme, or slant rhyme, consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds in the middle or at the end of words. Using consonance is a sophisticated poetic technique that can create subtle yet beautiful lyrics or lines of poetry. Here is an example of consonance:
1. Her finger hungered for a ring.
2. The satin mittens were ancient. 3. Don’t let the pet to bite you (‘t’ is the consonant throughout the sentence).
Though the first of the above examples is also an example of personification, we are interested in the repetition of the “nger” and “ng” sounds. If you say, “hungry and angry.” Notice how similar the words sound? What you are hearing is consonance, or the repetition of the “ngry” consonant sounds.
4. Enjambment
Enjambment is when the writer uses line breaks meaningfully and abruptly to either emphasize a point or to create dual meanings. When a poem is read, the reader will conventionally make a slight pause (shorter than a comma) when transitioning from line to line. When a writer uses enjambment, he or she uses this space to spread an idea over more than one line, either creating an alternate interpretation of the lines or drawing attention to the enjambed words.
1. Rolling through the field in the dead of winter.
When the word “dead” is placed on a line in isolation, it invites the reader to focus on that idea. Surrounded by empty space, the idea may resonate powerfully. Though enjambment could be used during a speech, the term “enjambment” is generally applied to the study of poetry.
5. Imagery
Imagery is when the writer or speaker uses their descriptions to access the senses of the reader of listener. Sometimes this is called, using sensory details. When I say “senses” or “sensory,” I am referring to the five senses: sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell.
1 .An old lump of snow melted in the corner.
2. The chirping crickets filled the empty night air.
3. I was awoken by the pleasing scent of the bacon as it wafted down the hallway.
As you read the first example, you might visualize snow melting, because the description accesses your sense of sight. When you read the second example, you may imagine the noises that crickets produce, as the imagery in the text references this sound. And as you encounter the third example, you may recall the aroma of bacon based on the imagery in the sentence. Good writers don’t just tell you things, they show you things by using imagery.
6. Repetition
Repetition is when the writer or speaker knowingly repeats a word or group of words for effect. This is a strong rhetorical technique that can also be used to build a theme in a speech or poem. It is important to note that it is not considered using repetition when a writer or speaker repeats essential articles, prepositions, pronouns, or conjunctions that are frequently used unintentionally as the mechanics of language dictate.
1. Nobody, oh nobody can make it out here alone.
2. Free at last! Free at last! Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!
3. Love is a red, red rose.
In the first example, only one word in the sentence is repeating: nobody. Nonetheless, this is still considered repetition. A poet, writer, or speaker may also repeat more than one word to have a greater impact or to highlight the importance of an idea, such as in the second example. In the second example a whole group of words repeats: Free at last. Each method of repetition can effectively embolden a message.
7. Rhyme
Rhyme is when the end or final sound of two or more words are identical. If the end sounds are not identical, then the speaker or writer is using consonance or assonance instead. Rhymes can also occur internally or on the inside of words or lines of poetry. A rhyme may also be monosyllabic (a one syllable rhyme) or polysyllabic (rhyme two or more syllables), such as in the following examples:
1. I left my punch card on the lunch yard.
2. I drove a race car to the space bar.
3. We saw a butter fly flutter by.
8. Rhythm
Rhythm is when the arrangement of words creates an audible pattern or beat when read out loud. A good way to check to see if a passage of text is using rhythm is to just hum the sounds that the words make rather than clearly pronouncing them. If you can hear a song or identify a form in the sounds, then the text is rhythmic.
There once was a guy from Chicago / Who drank away all of his problems.
I know it is wet and the sun is not sunny / but we can have lots of good fun that is funny.
Shall I comparethee to a summer’s day?
Instead of just reading these examples, trying humming them. Do you hear how they sort of bounce? This is a rhythm.
9. Onomatopoeia
This is a word that is used to suggest its meaning through its sound. It is also called (echoic verse) because it is imitating certain things whose voice echo the meaning when you listen to them. Such words are boom, zoom, buzz, clank, rattle etc. Examples
1. The aeroplane zoomed into the air.
2. We heard the booming of the canon.
3. I heard the murmuring of innumerable bees.
10. Metonymy
It is the representation of one thing by something closely associated with it. In other words an object is used to represent its user or owner.
Example:
1. The House adopted the motion(house here means people).
2. Can the gun survive without the hoe? (can a soldier survive without a farmer?)
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