Desertification, Definition, Causing and Solution

Desertification, Definition, Causing and Solution

Introduction

Desertification is one of the major ecological problems facing the Northern region with Nasarawa inclusive. In Nasarawa local government area, it has and still threatening the livelihood of the rural farmers. Nasarawa local government of Nasarawa state like many other areas of the north is currently been threatened with desertification problem which has worsened the socio-economic and environmental condition of the people. Practical evidence shows that significant number of rural farmers in  Nasarawa Local Government area live below poverty level due to asymmetrical relationship between poverty and land degradation resulting from desertification.

Definition of Desertification

Desertification can be seen as a type of land degradation in dry lands in which biological productivity is lost due to natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile land becomes arid. It can also be seen as a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry land region becomes increasingly arid, typically losing its’ bodies of water.

Causes of desertification in Nasarawa

• Overgrazing: Overgrazing occurs when the consumption of vegetation biomass by livestock and other grazers (e.g., wildlife) exceeds the vegetation’s ability to recover in a timely fashion, thus exposing the soil and reducing the vegetation’s productive capacity. In Nasarawa animal grazing is a huge problem in different parts of the town as cattle  and other livestock are seen feeding on the vegetation to a devastating stage where the land / vegetation hardly recover.  Otherwise stated, overgrazing takes place when vegetation or pasture is repeatedly removed from the land, and it is not given enough time to continue growing.

In Nasarawa overgrazing overgrazing signifies a serious environmental challenge in maintaining the natural balance of livestock on grazing lands, which reduces the productivity, usefulness, and biodiversity of the land. Overgrazing is mostly caused by the lack of proper animal and wildlife feeding management on the available pasture is the leading cause of overgrazing.

• Deforestation: Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use.

Deforestation is a great environmental issue in Nasarawa as the trees are cut down on a daily basis for the production of charcoals and firewood for cooking and clearance of the forest for agricultural purposes.

Deforestation – a removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in habitat damage, biodiversity loss, and aridity. Deforestation causes extinction, changes to climatic conditions, desertification, and displacement of populations, as observed by current conditions and in the past through the fossil record. Deforestation also reduces biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide, increasing negative feedback cycles contributing to global warming. Global warming also puts increased pressure on communities who seek food security by clearing forests for agricultural use and reducing arable land more generally.

• Excessive use of Fertilizer and Pesticides: Chemical fertiliser overuse can contribute to soil acidification and soil crust, thereby reducing the content of organic matter, humus content, beneficial species, stunting plant growth, altering the pH of the soil, growing pests, and even leading to the release of greenhouse gases.

The use of excessive amounts of fertilizer and pesticides by farmers in Nasarawa local government to maximize their crop yields in the short terms often leads to significant damages for the soil and the environmental condition in general. In the long run, this may turn from arable into arid land and it will no longer be suitable for farming purposes after a few years.

The adverse effect of chemical fertilizers and pesticides itself begins with the processing of chemicals whose products and by-products are certain harmful chemicals or gases that cause air pollution, such as NH₄, CO₂, CH₄, etc. And it will cause water pollution when the waste from industries is disposed of untreated in nearby water bodies. It also involves the most damaging impact of the accumulation of chemical waste in the bodies of water, i.e. water eutrophication. And its constant use, when applied to the soil, degrades the health and quality of the soil, thereby causing soil contamination.

• Over drafting of ground water: Ground water is the fresh water found under ground and also one of the largest water source. Over drafting is the process in which ground water is extracted in excess of the equilibrium yield of the aquifer that is pumping or the excessive pulling up of groundwater from the underground aquifers.

Extracting too much water (overdrafting) can lead to negative impacts such as a drop of the water table, land subsidence, and loss of surface water reaching the streams. In extreme cases, the supply of water that naturally recharges the aquifer is pulled directly from streams and rivers, lowering their water levels.

• Mining: Mining is another big reason for desertification in Nasarawa local government. Mining is the process of extracting useful minerals from the Earth, including the seas. A mineral, with a few exceptions, is an inorganic substance occurring in nature that has a definite chemical composition and distinctive physical properties or molecular structure.

Nasarawa is blessed with many solid minerals which the state as a whole is known as home of solid minerals. Minerals such Barite, Coal, Clay, Lead-Zinc, Sault, Gemstone, Silica Sand, Iron Ore, Granite, Tantalite, Marble, Mica, Cassiterite, Limestone, Aquamarine are mined in Nasarawa on a large scale. Years of uncontrolled mining of solid minerals and precious stones have turned many farmlands into pits. A field where peasant farmers used to plant rice and fruits is now an industrial site from where cracking noise from bulldozers and dynamites steals the sleep of residents.

For Mining, large areas of land have to be used, which causes deforestation as well as pollution of the nearby waters. By the time most of the natural resources have been extracted, and mining practices are no more profitable, the soil gets damaged significantly and the land becomes arid which may not be recoverable and desertification occurs.

The excessive mining in Nasarawa can result in erosion, sinkholes, loss of biodiversity, or the contamination of soil, groundwater, and surface water by the chemicals emitted from mining processes, thus causing desertification. These processes also affect the atmosphere from the emissions of carbon which have an effect on the quality of human health and biodiversity.

Solution to the problems of desertification in Nasarawa Local Government

1. Integrating land and water management to protect soil from erosion, and other forms of degradation. One of the key actions to combat desertification is water management — saving, reuse of treated water, rainwater harvesting, desalination, or direct use of seawater for salt-loving plants, as well as re-injection in the system after a new treatment. The availability of clean water, especially for regions in which fresh water is not readily available through groundwater or freshwater sources such as rivers and lakes, often requires water production via saline water sources.
2. By protecting the vegetative cover which can be a major instrument for soil conservation against wind and water.
3. By integrating the use of land for grazing and farming where conditions are favorable, allowing for a more efficient cycling of nutrients within the agricultural system.
4. Applying a combination of traditional practices with locally acceptable and locally adapted land use technology.
5. Giving the local communities the capacity to prevent desertification and to manage dry land resources effectively
6. The government of the state should place more emphasize to people living in Nasarawa local government to make more use of irrigation farming

REFERENCES

Abubakar, I.K., (2010). Desertification in Nigeria. Retrieved 12-07-2014 from www.Sundaydaily

Betta, H.E., Ashong, C.A. and Basher, S.A., (2013). Press Coverage of Climate Change Issues in Nigeria and Implications for Public Participation Opportunities. Journal of Sustainable Development; 6( 2: 58-69;

Climate Change Challenge.org. (2012). Climate change. Retrieved from May 11, 2012, from http://www.climatechangechallenge.org

Dregne, H. E. (1986). Desertification of Arid Land. http://www.ciesin.coloubia.edu
Emodi, E.E., (2013). Drought and Desertification as they affect Nigerian Environment. Journal of Environmental Management Safety. 4(1): 45-54

Manometers

Manometers

Principle of Operation

Manometers derive pressure by the combination of a height differential of a liquid column and the density of the fluid within the liquid column. The U type manometer, which is considered as a primary pressure standard, derives pressure utilizing the following equation:

P = P2 – P1 = hw ρg

Where:

P = Differential pressure

P1 = Pressure applied to the low pressure connection

P2 = Pressure applied to the high pressure connection

hw = is the height differential of the liquid columns between the two legs of the manometer

ρ = mass density of the fluid within the columns

g = acceleration of gravity

 Types of Manometers

U Tube Manometers

“The principle of operation of the U type manometer is shown on Figure 5-1. It is simply a glass tube bent to form the letter U and partially filled with some liquid. With both legs of the instrument open to atmosphere or subjected to the same pressure, Figure 5-1, the liquid maintains exactly the same level or zero reference. As illustrated on

Figure 5-2, if a pressure is applied to the left side of the instrument, the fluid recedes in the left leg and raises in the right leg. The fluid moves until the unit weight of the fluid as indicated by “H” exactly balances the pressure. This is known as hydrostatic balance. The height of fluid from one surface to the other is the actual height of fluid opposing the pressure.

The pressure is always the height of fluid from one surface to the other regardless of the shape or size of the tubes, as illustrated in Figure 5-3.

The left hand manometer has a uniform tube, the center one has an enlarged leg and the right one has an irregular leg. Manometers at the top are open to atmosphere on both legs so the indicating fluid level in both legs is the same. Imposing an identical pressure on the left leg of each manometer, as shown on Figure 5-4, causes the fluid level in each manometer to change. Because of the variations in volume of the manometer legs, the distances moved by the fluid columns are different. However, “H” the total distance between the fluid levels, remains identical in the three manometers”15.

Inclined Tube Manometers

“Many applications require accurate measurements of low pressure such as drafts and very low differentials. To better handle these applications, the manometer is arranged with the indicating tube inclined, as in Figure 5-5, providing for better resolution. This arrangement can allow 12” of scale length to represent 1″ of vertical height. With scale subdivisions, a pressure of 0.00036 PSI (1/100 inch of water) can be read”15.

Well Type Manometers

The well type manometer is illustrated on Figure 5-6. In this design, the pressure is applied to a fluid well attached to a single indicating tube. As the fluid moves down in the well, the fluid is displaced into the smaller indicating leg of the manometer. This permits direct reading on a single scale.

The well type manometer utilizes the principle of volume balance wherein the fluid displaced from the well is equal to the added fluid in the smaller indicating column. The well area and the internal diameter of the indicating type must be carefully controlled to insure the accuracy of the instrument.

 The well type manometer does not fulfill the requirements of a primary standard as described in paragraph 1.5 and can be considered as one form of a secondary standard.

Intrinsic Correction Factors

Fluid Density Correction

Manometers indicate the correct pressure at only one temperature. This is because the indicating fluid density changes with temperature. If water is the indicating fluid, an inch scale indicates one inch of water at 4°C only. On the same scale mercury indicates one inch of mercury at 0°C only. If a reading using water or mercury is taken at 20°C then the reading is not an accurate reading. The error introduced is about 0.4% of reading for mercury and about 0.2% of reading for water. Since manometers are used at temperatures above and below the standard temperature, corrections are needed. A simple way for correcting for density changes is to ratio the densities.

 Where:

ho = Corrected height of the indicating fluid to standard temperature

ht = Height of the indicating fluid at the temperature when read

ρo = Density of the indicating fluid at standard temperature

ρt = Density of the indicating fluid when read

Using this method is very accurate, when density/ temperature relations are known. Data is readily available for water and mercury.

Density (g/cm3) as a function of temperature (°C) for mercury:

= 13.556786 [1 – 0.0001818 (T – 15.5556)]

Density ( g/cm3) as a function of temperature for water:

= 0.9998395639 + 6.798299989 x 10-5 (T)

– 9.10602556X10-6 (T2) + 1.005272999 x

10-7 (T3) – 1.126713526 x 10-9(T4) +

6.591795606 x 10-12 (T5)

 For other fluids, manometer scales and fluid densities may be formulated to read inches of water or mercury at a set temperature. The manometer still only reads correct at one temperature, and for precise work the temperature corrections cannot be overlooked.

Gravity Correction

The need for gravity corrections arises because gravity at the location of the instrument governs the weight of the liquid column. Like the temperature correction, gravity correction is a ratio.

 go = International Standard Gravity(980.665 Gals.)

gt = Gravity at the instrument’s location (In Gals.)

A 10° change in latitude at sea level will introduce approximately 0.1% error in reading.

At the Equator (0° Latitude) the error is approximately 0.25%. An increase in elevation of 5000 feet (1524 m) will introduce an error of approximately 0.05%.

For precise work you must have the value of the gravity measured at the instrument location. Gravity values have been determined by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey at many points in the United States. Using these values, the U.S. Geodetic Survey may interpolate and obtain a gravity value sufficient for most work. To obtain a gravity report, the instruments latitude, longitude and elevation are needed. Similar agencies are available in countries outside the United States. Contact local authorities for the agency and procedures to determine local gravity.

Where a high degree of accuracy is not necessary and values of local gravity have not been determined, calculations for differences in local gravity can be obtained. Gravity at a known latitude is:

Gx= 980.616 [1 – 0.0026373 cos(2x) + 0.0000059cos2(2x)]

Where:

Gx = gravity value at latitude x, sea level (cm/sec2)

x = latitude (degrees)

The relationship for inland values of gravity at elevations above sea level is:

Gt = Gx – 0.000094H + 0.00003408(H-H1)(cm/sec2)

Where:

H = Elevation (feet) above mean sea level

H1 = Average elevation (feet) of the general terrain within a radius of 100 miles of the point

Pressure Medium Head Correction

Commonly, a differential pressure is measured by the height of the fluid column. Actually the differential pressure, measured by the indicating fluid height, is the difference between the density of the fluid column and the density of equal height of the pressure medium.

 The relationship is:

Where:

ρpm = density of the pressure medium

The significance of the pressure medium correction effect on the manometer reading varies with the indicating fluid and pressure medium. Whether this correction is necessary depends upon the user’s accuracy requirements. The most common pressure medium is air. Not correcting for air over water yields an error of 0.12% (using the density of air as 0.0012 g/cm3). In precise work, air density can be determined exactly knowing the temperature, pressure and relative humidity of the air. The correction for air over mercury is extremely small (0.008% error) and there for may usually be ignored. Another application, often used in flow applications, is water over mercury. The pressure medium correction in this situation is mandatory. An error of 7.4% is introduced if the correction is not applied. In many instances manometer scales can be designed with this correction built-in.

Scale Corrections

Another factor governing manometer’s accuracy is the scale. As with indicating fluids, temperature changes affect the scale. At higher temperatures the scale will expand and graduations will be further apart. The opposite effect will occur at lower temperatures. All Meriam scales are fabricated at a temperature of 22°C (71.6°F). A 10°C shift in temperature from that temperature will induce an error in the reading of about 0.023% in an aluminum scale. All Meriam scales are made of aluminum.

ho = ht [1 + a(T – To)]

Where:

á = Coefficient of linear expansion for the scale material (0.0000232/°C for aluminum)

T = the temperature when the manometer was read To = temperature when the scale was manufactured

5.2.5 Compressibility, Absorbed Gases and Capillary Considerations

Compressibility of indicating fluids is negligible except in a few applications. For compressibility to have an effect, the manometer must be used in measuring high differential pressures.

At high differential pressures the fluid shrinkage (Increase in density) may begin to be resolvable on the manometer. At 250 PSI the density of water changes approximately 0.1%.

Depending upon accuracy requirements compressibility may or may not be critical. The relationship between pressure and density of water is as follows:

ρ= 0.00000364 p + 0.9999898956

Where:

ρ= density of water(g/cm3) at 4°C and pressure p

p = pressure in PSIA

Since the need to correct is very rare, other indicating fluid’s compressibilities have not been determined. Mercury’s compressibility is negligible.

Absorbed gases are those gases found dissolved in a liquid. The presence of dissolved gases decreases the density of the liquid. Air is a commonly dissolved gas that is absorbed by most manometer fluids. The density error of water fully saturated with air is 0.00004% at 20°C. The effect is variable and requires consideration for each gas in contact with a particular fluid. Mercury is one exception in which absorbed gases are not found. This makes mercury an excellent manometer fluid in vacuum and absolute pressure applications.

Capillary effects occur due to the surface tension or wetting characteristics between the liquid and the glass tube. As a result of surface tension, most fluids form a convex meniscus.

Mercury is the only fluid that does not wet the glass, and consequently forms a concave meniscus. For consistent results, you must always observe the fluid meniscus in the same way, whether convex or concave. To help reduce the effects of surface tension, manometers should be designed with large bore tubes. This flattens the meniscus, making it easier to read. A large bore tube also helps fluid drainage. The larger the bore the smaller the time lag while drainage occurs. Another controlling factor is the accumulation of corrosion and dirt on the liquid surface. The presence of foreign material changes the shape of the meniscus. With mercury, it helps to tap or vibrate the tube to reduce error in the readings. a final note to capillary effects is the addition of a wetting agent to the manometer fluid. Adding the wetting agent helps in obtaining a symmetrical meniscus.

Parallax (Readability)

In order to achieve consistent results, the level of the meniscus on a manometer must be read with the eyes level to the meniscus. Placing the eyes level with the meniscus eliminates reading distortions caused by angle of reading,parallax, etc. If a mirror back is available, it will aid in placing the operators eyes in the proper position before taking a reading.

To duplicate the factory calibration procedure, read the lowest indicated liquid level as measured by the hairline at which the original zero was set.

Communication

Communication

Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another. Although this is a simple definition, when we think about how we may communicate the subject becomes a lot more complex. There are various categories of communication and more than one may occur at any time.

The different categories of communication are:

• Spoken or Verbal Communication: face-to-face, telephone, radio or television and other media.
• Non-Verbal Communication: body language, gestures, how we dress or act – even our scent.
• Written Communication: letters, e-mails, books, magazines, the Internet or via other media.
• Visualizations: graphs and charts, maps, logos and other visualizations can communicate messages.

The process of interpersonal communication cannot be regarded as a phenomena which simply ‘happens’, but should be seen as a process which involves participants negotiating their role in this process, whether consciously or unconsciously. 

Senders and receivers are of course vital in communication. In face-to-face communication the roles of the sender and receiver are not distinct as both parties communicate with each other, even if in very subtle ways such as through eye-contact (or lack of) and general body language. There are many other subtle ways that we communicate (perhaps even unintentionally) with others, for example the tone of our voice can give clues to our mood or emotional state, whilst hand signals or gestures can add to a spoken message.

In written communication the sender and receiver are more distinct. Until recent times, relatively few writers and publishers were very powerful when it came to communicating the written word. Today we can all write and publish our ideas on the Internet, which has led to an explosion of information and communication possibilities.

The Communication Process

A message or communication is sent by the sender through a communication channel to a receiver, or to multiple receivers.  The sender must encode the message (the information being conveyed) into a form that is appropriate to the communication channel, and the receiver(s) then decodes the message to understand its meaning and significance.

Misunderstanding can occur at any stage of the communication process. Effective communication involves minimising potential misunderstanding and overcoming any barriers to communication at each stage in the communication process. See our page: Barriers to Effective Communication for more information.

An effective communicator understands their audience, chooses an appropriate communication channel, hones their message to this channel and encodes the message to reduce misunderstanding by the receiver(s).  They will also seek out feedback from the receiver(s) as to how the message is understood and attempt to correct any misunderstanding or confusion as soon as possible. Receivers can use Clarification and Reflection as effective ways to ensure that the message sent has been understood correctly.

Communication Channels

Communication theory states that communication involves a sender and a receiver (or receivers) conveying information through a communication channel.

Communication Channels is the term given to the way in which we communicate. There are multiple communication channels available to us today, for example face-to-face conversations, telephone calls, text messages,  email, the Internet (including social media such as Facebook and Twitter), radio and TV, written letters, brochures and reports to name just a few.

Choosing an appropriate communication channel is vital for effective communication as each communication channel has different strengths and weaknesses.  For example, broadcasting news of an upcoming event via a written letter might convey the message clearly to one or two individuals but will not be a time or cost effective way to broadcast the message to a large number of people.  On the other hand, conveying complex, technical information is better done via a printed document than via a spoken message since the receiver is able to assimilate the information at their own pace and revisit items that they do not fully understand. Written communication is also useful as a way of recording what has been said, for example taking minutes in a meeting.

Encoding Messages

All messages must be encoded into a form that can be conveyed by the communication channel chosen for the message.  We all do this every day when transferring abstract thoughts into spoken words or a written form.  However, other communication channels require different forms of encoding, e.g. text written for a report will not work well if broadcast via a radio programme, and the short, abbreviated text used in text messages would be inappropriate if sent via a letter. Complex data may be best communicated using a graph or chart or other visualisation.

Effective communicators encode their messages with their intended audience in mind as well as the communication channel. This involves an appropriate use of language, conveying the information simply and clearly, anticipating and eliminating likely causes of confusion and misunderstanding, and knowing the receivers’ experience in decoding other similar communications.  Successful encoding of messages is a vital skill in effective communication.

Decoding Messages

Once received, the receivers need to decode the message, and successful decoding is also a vital skill.  Individuals will decode and understand messages in different ways based upon any Barriers to Communication which might be present, their experience and understanding of the context of the message, their psychological state, and the time and place of receipt as well as many other potential factors.  Understanding how the message will be decoded, and anticipating as many of the potential sources of misunderstanding as possible, is the art of a successful communicator.

Feedback

Receivers of messages are likely to provide feedback on how they have understood the messages through both verbal and non-verbal reactions.  Effective communicators should pay close attention to this feedback as it the only way to assess whether the message has been understood as intended, and it allows any confusion to be corrected.  Bear in mind that the extent and form of feedback will vary according to the communication channel used: for example feedback during a face-to-face or telephone conversation will be immediate and direct, whilst feedback to messages conveyed via TV or radio will be indirect and may be delayed, or even conveyed through other media such as the Internet.

There are four main problems that prevent people from writing complete, grammatically correct sentences. These problems include: (a) the sentence fragment; (b) the run-on sentence; (c) lack of subject-verb and pronoun-reference agreement; and (d) la ck of parallel structure.

Sentence Fragments

A fragment is a sentence which is not complete, and therefore not grammatically correct. Sentence fragments are problematic because they are disjointed and confusing to the reader. There are three main causes of fragments: (a) a missing subject; (b) a missing verb; (c) “danger” words which are not finished.

There are three ways to check for sentence completeness:

1. Find the subject. A subject is the noun or pronoun about which something is written. To find the subject of a sentence, identify who or what is doing the action. If there is no subject, the sentence is a fragment. Consider the two examples below.

“The student felt nervous before the speech.”

“Thought about leaving the room.”

The first sentence above is complete, because it contains both a subject and a verb. The subject of this sentence is the student. The sentence contains a subject which answers the question, “who or what felt nervous?” The second sentence is a fragment, because there is no identifiable subject. The sentence does not contain a subject which answers the question, “who or what thought about leaving?” To correct the second sentence, one could write: “He thought about leaving the room.” Alternatively, on e could combine the two sentences to form one complete sentence: “The student felt nervous before the speech, and thought about leaving the room.”

2. Find the verb. A verb is the action word in a sentence. Verbs express action, existence or occurrence. To find the verb in a sentence, identify what happened. If there is no identifiable action, the sentence is a fragment. Consider the two examples below.

“Many scientists, such as Einstein, think in strange ways.”

“Many scientists think in strange ways. Einstein, for example.”

This first example above has one complete sentence followed by a fragment. “Einstein, for example” is a fragment because there is no verb. “Einstein” serves as the subject (he is the one doing something), but the rest of the sentence does not express wh at action he is taking. The second example is a complete sentence. In this case, the sentence contains both a subject (scientists) and a verb (think). Alternatively, one could write the following: “Many scientists think in strange ways. Einstein, for example, could not tolerate more than one bar of soap in his home.” In this case, there are two complete sentences. In the second sentence, the subject is Einstein and the verb is “could not tolerate.”

3. Check for “danger” words. A danger word is one which introduces a thought that requires a follow-up phrase. Such words are sometimes called “cliff-hangers” because they begin a statement, but leave it “hanging” without a finish. Consider the phrases below.

“If you come home…”

“When the rain falls…”

“Because he is mean…”

The danger words in the sentences above are “if,” “when” and “because.” When these words are used at the beginning of a phrase, they require a follow-up phrase to conclude the thought.

Example: If you come home on time…then what?
Correct: If you come home on time, I will buy you a present.

Example: When it rains…what happens?

Correct: When it rains, the gutters become clogged.

Example: Because he is mean…what is the result?

Correct: Because he is mean, I will not take a class from him.

Danger words are helpful when writing sentences, but one must be sure to include a concluding phrase when these words are used.

Commonly used danger words include: after, unless, although, how, as if, when, because, where, before, while, if, until, once, so that, since, whether.

Run-on Sentences

A run-on sentence is one which actually contains two (or more) complete sentences without the proper punctuation to create separate sentences. There are two common forms of the run-on: (1) the “comma splice” in which a comma is inserted between two comp lete sentences where a period should actually be used; (2) a lack of punctuation where a semi-colon or period is needed.

Incorrect Examples – The Comma Splice

John is a musician, he plays the guitar for a living.

The girl walked home, she decided not to ride the bus.

He could only guess at the number of guests who attended the party, the entire yard was filled with people.

In each of the examples above, the two sentences are incorrectly joined by a comma, thus “splicing” two complete sentences together into one run-on sentence. To correct these run-on’s, the comma should be replaced by a period, thus creating two separate sentences, as shown below.

Correct Examples

John is a musician. He plays the guitar for a living.
The girl walked home. She decided not to ride the bus.
He could only guess at the number of guests who attended the party. The entire yard was filled with people.

Incorrect Examples – Lack of Punctuation

There is a problem with the television however no one is available to fix it.
Nobody knows what really happened the policeman said there was a fight.
That is the problem when people have conflict they attack each other personally.

In each of the examples above, some type of punctuation is needed to separate the two parts of the sentence: either a semi-colon or a period.

Correct Examples

There is a problem with the television; however, no one is available to fix it.
There is a problem with the television. However, no one is available to fix it.

Nobody knows what really happened; the policeman said there was a fight.
Nobody knows what really happened. The policeman said there was a fight.

That is the problem when people have conflict; they attack each other personally.
That is the problem when people have conflict. They attack each other personally.

Subject-Verb Agreement

In order for a sentence to be grammatically correct, the subject and verb must both be singular or plural. In other words, the subject and verb must agree with one another in their tense. If the subject is in plural form, the verb should also be in plur al form (and vice versa). To ensure subject-verb agreement, identify the main subject and verb in the sentence, then check to see if they are both plural or singular. Consider the examples below.

Incorrect examples – Subject-Verb Agreement

“The group of students are complaining about grades.”

The main subject in this sentence is “group,” which is singular. The main verb is “are complaining,” which is plural.

“A recipe with more than six ingredients are too complicated.”
The main subject in this sentence is “recipe,” which is singular. The main verb is “are,” which is plural.

“The facts in that complex case is questionable.”

The main subject in this sentence is “facts,” which is plural. The main verb, “is,” is singular.

“The people is wearing formal attire.”

The main subject in this sentence is “people,” which is plural. The main verb is “is wearing,” which is singular.

Correct examples

“The group of students is complaining about grades.”

“A recipe with more than six ingredients is too complicated.”

“The facts in that complex case are questionable.”

“The people are wearing formal attire.”

A variation of the subject-verb agreement is pronoun-reference agreement. In the case of pronoun-reference agreement, all of the pronouns should agree with one another in singular or plural tense. Consider the examples below.

Incorrect examples – Pronoun-Reference Agreement

“A manager should always be honest with their employees.”

The subject in this sentence, “manager,” is singular. The corresponding pronoun, “their,” is plural.

“Organizations must be careful about discriminating against its employees.”

The subject in this sentence is “organizations,” which is plural. The corresponding pronoun, “its,” is singular.

“If you really care about somebody, let them make their own choices.”
In this sentence, the pronoun “somebody” is singular, but the corresponding pronouns, “them” and “their” are plural.

Correct examples

“A manager should always be honest with his (or her) employees.”
“Organizations must be careful about discriminating against their employees.”
“If you really care about somebody, let him (or her) make his (or her) own choices.”

Parallel Structure

The parallel structure of a sentence refers to the extent to which different parts of the sentence match each other in form. When more than one phrase or description is used in a sentence, those phrases or descriptions should be consistent with one an other in their form and wording. Parallel structure is important because it enhances the ease with which the reader can follow the writer’s idea. Consider the following examples.

Incorrect examples – Parallel Structure

Example One: “He is strong and a tough competitor.”

Notice that “strong” and “a tough competitor” are not the in the same form. “Strong” and “competitive” are consistent in form.

Example Two: “The new coach is a smart strategist, an effective manager, and works hard.”

Notice that “a smart strategist” and “an effective manager” are consistent with one another, but not consistent with “works hard.”

Example Three: “In the last minute of the game, John intercepted the football, evaded the tacklers, and a touchdown was scored.”
Notice that the first two phrases in this sentence are consistent with one another: “intercepted the football” and “evaded the tacklers.” However, the final phrase, “and a touchdown was scored” is not consistent with the first two phrases. Correct examples

Example One: “He is strong and competitive.”

Example Two: “The new coach is a smart strategist, an effective manager, and a hard worker.”

THE APPLICATION OF COMPUTER IN REAL ESTATE APPRAISAL

THE APPLICATION OF COMPUTER IN REAL ESTATE APPRAISAL

ABSTRACT

The use of computer as an electronic device have been embraced in all field of human endeavour ranging from banking, engineering marketing, construction with real estate appraisal inclusive. This paper is centered on the application of computer in real estate appraisal.    The computer is increasingly used by real estate appraiser for various purposes. The word processing software permits the appraiser to write up the individual property appraisal report. The same or different software permits the appraisal the appraiser to fill in appraisal forms with the requirement information that is found in the appraiser’s files and acquired from other sources. Computer spreadsheet software allows the appraiser to calculate multiple regression coefficients of correlation after data from the appraisers’ files is entered into the software. Blocks of residential single family are inserted into the program to see what housing characteristics have the most effect on the resulting appraised value. Property tax appraisers with a mass appraisal to accomplished actively use computer multiple regression models. At least part of the appraiser’s wealth of information that comes from a daily inflow of data from various sources may be filed in the computer database. The computer has become a necessity rather than a luxury or an occasionally used piece of office equipment.

INTRODUCTION

The typical professional appraisal of a generation ago would be flabbergasted by the inroads made by electronic media in the modern appraisal office. Even in the past ten years, the  manner in which appraisal data are accumulated and analyzed and the way that the appraiser’s estimate of value is transmitted to the client have undergone a transformation that is still ongoing. With the increasing availability and range of use of small, easily programmed office computer, the appraisers must be acquainted with a variety of appraisal-based computer applications. A few of these are highlighted below, with suggestions for the equipment necessary to keep pace with the developing electronic products.

THE COMPUTER: Even the smallest real estate or appraisal office can now take advantage of the computer’s storage and problem-solving capabilities. What kind of computer is best for the appraisal office? That depends on the nature of the appraisal work, the complexity of the assignments the appraisal will undertake, and the size of the appraiser’s budget.

It is best to tackle the question of what computer to buy by working backward; that is, the appraiser should begin by considering the requirements of the software that will be used in everyday practice. The appraiser may have already decided to buy one of the major appraisal software packages, which could cover everything from case tracking, including data collection and report preparation, to management of the appraisal office, including bill and staffing. Should the computer be “IBM-compatible” (One that meets the operating specifications designed for IBM, Inc., products, referred to as PCs, or personal computer). Macintosh computers are often favoured by design and publishing firms. There is excellent mac-based software available for the mot appraisal functions – for example, word processing, spreadsheets, databases, office management, communications, graphics, photo editing. Etc. There also are very sophisticated Mac programs for all the standard forms used for residential and general appraisaing; however, there are more choices of software vendors for the PC. The beginning appraiser should follow the recommendations of the managing appraiser who will be reviewing his or her work to ensure compatibility. Generally the new appraiser can be included under the managing appraisers’ current software license for a relatively small fee.

THE APPLICATION OF COMPUTER IN REAL ESTATE APPRAISAL

Most likely, the appraiser will need a modern, a computer – based telephone, to gain access to the wide range of information available on the internet. In addition, the appraiser may want to establish an electronic link to one or more lenders, which would require a computer with sufficient memory in addition to a modern capable of making such connections efficiently. Of course, the minimum capability required by today’s computer applications only establishes the baseline requirement for the appraisal office. The difficulty is in deciding how far beyong the minimum the appraiser should go.

Some state appraiser licensing offices, as well as the major appraiser societies, offer introductory classes or seminars in computer technology and application for the real estate appraisal. Because of the rapid development of more powerful computers, as well as new software to take advantage of the computer’s growing data-handling capabilities, attendance at one of these classes should be useful for the experienced computer users and the neophyte. The computer  hardware and software purchase decisions needn’t be made in a vacuum.

By seeking experts advice, and dealing with one of the major computer manufacturers, even the beginner can take most of the trauma out of the purchase decision. With the right information, the computer buyer should be able to invest in a system that will be adequate for three years of services. That means that the system should not only meet the appraisers’ immediate needs but be expandable to cover reasonably expected additions of equipment and software.

The most important features of the computer purchase will not be apparent until after a problem arises. Who is responsible for fixing the computer when something goes wrong, and where will the repairs be made? IF the computer system is purchase with an intended period of use of three years, the most desirable warranty or services contract will be one that provides for three years of on-site maintenance, to be performed within a stated time of the request for service. Such a warranty may require an additional fee, but will help reduce a major source of stress for the computer owner. After all, when an appraiser is relying on a functioning computer system to produce and transmit appraisals, a non functioning machine means that the appraiser is virtually out of business.

What price can the appraiser expect to pay for a system capable of handling all, of the operations mentioned above? That depends on many things: the systems motherboard, the command system, which determines how fast the system can operate; RAM, or random access memory, which determines how many operations the system can perform at the same time; hard drive memory, or data storage capacity; a monitor of adequate size and image definition; and the specifications of the modem, DVD/CD drive, and other peripherals. The good news is that prices continue to fail. Expectations are that this year’s system will have much greater speed and capacity and yet cost less than last year’s system. A basic “office suite” of software applications, including word-processing, spreadsheet, graphics, and mailing List capability, is likely to be included in the price of the basic system. The cost of appraisal-based software applications will depend on the appraiser’s needs and on how much time the appraiser is willing to spend searching for the best price available.

THE PRINTER

Today’s appraisal software not only allows a user to complete any of the numerous standard appraisal forms, it provides the form itself. The key to making a professional presentation is the quality of the printer used to print out the completed term. Given the dramatic drop in prices of laser printer, there is no substitute for a laser printer capable of producing six or more black-and-white pages per minute, at a resolution of 600 by 600 dpi (dots per inch). The price for such a machine used to be around S1.000, but they are now available for:$500 and up. A useful second printer is a color ink-jet machine that can produce more attractive renderings of photographs. It has become possible to purchase one for well under $500.

THE BACKUP SYSTEM

 As with any serious computer use, the appraiser should ensure that no data are lost in the event of a power failure or mechanical malfunction. The backup system properly consists of two components: (1) a battery (not just a power surge protector) to which the computer is connected to provide a secondary power supply – in essence, a cushion of time during which the computer can be shut down in the event of a power failure without loss of data and (2) a second computer memory (hard drive or cartridge), installed inside or outside the machine, that can b used (and refreshed periodically) to keep a copy of everything that is stored on the computer.  It should be possible to buy both components for a combined, price of less than N75,000.  Note: The backup system disk or cartridge should not be left in the machine or it will suffer the same fate as the main system in the event of power toss or malfunction. A final word of warning: During an electrical storm, it may be prudent to shut down one’s computer completely to avoid risk of data Loss. There is no backup system yet invented that will survive a direct hit, or even a near- miss, from a bolt of lightning.

THE INTERNET

 From its beginnings 40 years ago as a telephone-based method of computer information exchange for the military, what we now term the Internet has emerged as a major method of wor1dwde communication.

Efficient access to the resources available via the Internet requires a modern capable of transmitting 28,800 bps (bits per second) or better and subscription with a service provider that provides the initial access link. Once one is online (has gained access to the Internet), one can reach government, educational, and private sources of information around the globe. One can also be a recipient of communications in the form of electronic mail, referred to as e-mail.

Current predictions are that use of the Internet will only increase in coming years. Its use for appraisers is growing exponentially every year, as more and more data sources, including multiple listing services, provide online access to their databases. The number of government offices allowing access to public records is also growing. Information on national, regional, and local economic, employment, and other trends is readily available. There are a growing number of services specializing in data on various types of commercial and residential properties.

The cost of access to the Internet is surprisingly modest. Some Internet providers (such as America Online) provide their subscribers with access to numerous newspapers, magazines chat availability shopping, and other services at a base monthly rate for a specified number of hours of access to the service, with an hourly rate for each additional hour. Unlimited Service is available for a higher monthly fee, Other service providers provide access to the Internet, but no additional programming.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

 Satellite based mapping systems have been in use for as long as satellites have orbited the earth. From their initial military and weather technology based applications, mapping systems based on Latitude and longitude are now entering the commercial market place. The utility of the maps. Once available online from the United States Geological Survey (USGS), has been greatly expanded. Commercial services now provide (via computer disk or the Internet) reference maps that provide overlays of national, regional, and local data and are capable of incorporating the appraiser’s own data The cost of such maps will depend on the source and method of transmission.

Electronic data interchange (EDI).

The present trend toward consolidation of financial institutions has resulted in fewer users of appraisal services, particularly in the single-family residential mortgage loan marketplace. The lenders that now dominate the field arc moving increasingly toward the most direct method of communication of property valuation – electronic data interchange, or EDI. An electronic link between the lender and the appraiser via modem allows a computer in the appraiser’s office to transmit the required information almost instantaneously. Using EDI, the appraiser no longer needs to print hard copies of the report that includes the basis for the estimate of value. Now the appraiser enters the necessary information into the computer and then uses the computer’s modem to connect to the lender’s computer and relay all of the required information with the speed of a telephone call. The computer software that allows for such efficient transmittals must be customized to meet the lender’s requirement, but the lender may provide the software at little or no cost to the appraiser.

THE CAMERA

No modern appraisal office is complete without a digital camera that can be used to make and transmit images without the need for film or printed copy. The digital camera may be no larger than the typical 35-milimeter camera used in the past. It will have a view finder, lens, and built-in flash. Within the camera body, however, is a miniature version of a computer, capable of receiving images, recording them in digitized (computer-readable) format on a memory chip, and. releasing them to a printer and / or another memory device, such as a computer hard drive or disk. Once the images have been downloaded – that is, recorded and/or stored elsewhere – they can be erased from the camera’s memory which can then be used to record new images.

The digital camera uses no film and requires no professional processing. The number of images the camera is capable of recording and storing depend:; on the size (the amount of memory) of the chip inside. With a digital camera, the appraiser can import photographic-quality images directly to an appraisal report. If the report itself is transmitted electronically, the photos are incorporated within the report, to be viewed on the recipient’s computer monitor.

A digital camera with enough memory for hundreds of images (depending on the degree of resolution desired, with higher-resolution photos requiring more memory per image).

USE OF TECHNOLOGY:

In recent years there have been many references to use of “artificial intelligence’ in the appraisal process. The use of appropriate resources, including computers, can help an appraiser function more efficiently and more accurately, but these tools serve only as aids to the appraiser. There never will be a substitute for the skilled and informed judgement of a professional appraiser.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The skills required of the professional appraiser touch on most areas of real estate practice. The best-qualified appraiser will have some at the abilities of the economist, city planner, surveyor, local estate developer, builder, and broker. Familiarity with appraisal-based computer applications is rapidly becoming a practical necessity however impartiality objectivity, knowledge of appraising fundamentals, and the quality of judgment that comes only with experience are the professional appraiser’s chief credentials.

The application of computer in real estate appraisal have contributed immensely to the efficiency and productivity of real estate appraiser and the estate survey and valuation profession. Therefore it pertinent for all valuers and estate firm to have access to this modern tools “Computer” and harness its enormous benefits so as to increase professionalism and productivity.

REFERENCES

Adair, Alastair, Mary Lou Downi (1996) European Valuation Practice. Theory and Technique. London. E & FN Spon, publisher.

Baum etal (1995) Property Investment Appraisal. 2^nd edition, London:  Routledge publishers.

THE EFFECT OF POOR TRAINING ON THE EMPLOYEES PERFORMANCE

THE EFFECT OF POOR TRAINING ON THE EMPLOYEES PERFORMANCE

According to Tima Amo (2006), employee who have not received adequate training before assigned responsibility usually lack adequate knowledge and skill to provide satisfactory customer service. This combination result to dissatisfied customers. The company will experience declining sales of dissatisfied customers choosing competitors who can provide quality product and appropriate service (i.e loss of customers).

Betts (1983), said if training as an important stage does not receive sufficient attention from supervisors, managers and the possibility of using individual full capacity become very remote. By implication, Betts is simply poor training will hinder the donation of employee full capacity towards work.

Poor training makes an individual to be unproductive. And” many organization especially those developing rapidly, just cannot afford to devote so much on their resources to pay the salaries of unproductive employees” Foluke (2007) an employee who is not adequately trained would therefore, have his job at risk (i.e no job security). Poor training can bring about many mistakes and great job dissatisfaction. Martins and Jackson cited in Foluke(2007) said “training help the organization to cope with organization social technological change whether, it is focused on orientation on the job, development of potential or retraining of employees” in essence, if an employee training is adequate and not poor, such employee will have fewer mistakes and greater job satisfaction. According to Obekpa (2004) the effect of poor training include the following:

1. Poor Communication Skills: – A secretary is expected to have good communication skills without this, she will be unable to tolerate well with her boss, colleagues and customers. Inability to communicate well with those she comes in contact with makes the job difficult and tiring.
2. Ineffective Handling of Office Equipment: – The employee is expected to have the knowledge of handling office equipment, such as telephone and other equipment relating to her job. This will enable her perform her task efficiently and effectively.
3. Poor Organization and Inability to Delegate Duties: – An employee inadequate trained will find it difficult to plan the day’s work and also find it difficult to keep abreast with her functions, thus finding it difficult to organize herself and her boss appointment and also unable to delegate duties.
4. Poor Imaginative Skills: – An employee should be proactive with a lot of imaginative skill. He/she should be able to point a good picture in his or her mind on the best way to handle a task.
5. Inability to Manage Limited Resources: – An employee should be able to manage resources available to her. But an inadequate trained employee will find it difficult to manage limited resources available to her because of errors and mistakes that occur in the cause of her work.

PROTEIN ELECTROPHORESIS

PROTEIN ELECTROPHORESIS

INTRODUCTION

Serum protein electrophoresis is a laboratory examination that commonly is used to identify patients with multiple myeloma and other disorders of serum protein. Many subspecialists include serum protein electrophoresis screening in the initial evaluation for numerous clinical conditions. Sometimes, however, the results of this examination can be confusing or difficult to interpret (Jenkins, 2019). This seminar paper discussed protein electrophoresis in details which covers the definition, Acetate or gel electrophoresis, Capillary electrophoresis, Components of Serum Protein Electrophoresis, Indications, Interpretation of Results, Monoclonal Versus Polyclonal Gammopathies and Evaluation of an Abnormal Serum Protein Electrophoresis

THE CONCEPT OF PROTEIN ELECTROPHORESIS

Serum protein electrophoresis (SPEP or SPE) is a laboratory test that examines specific proteins in the blood called globulins(Jenkins, 2019).The most common indications for a serum protein electrophoresis test are to diagnose or monitor multiple myeloma, a monoclonal gammopathy of uncertain significance (MGUS), or further investigate a discrepancy between a low albumin and a relatively high total protein.

Unexplained bone pain, anemia, proteinuria, chronic kidney disease, and hypercalcemia are also signs of multiple myeloma, and indications for SPE. Blood must first be collected, usually into an airtight vial or syringe. Electrophoresis is a laboratory technique in which the blood serum (the fluid portion of the blood after the blood has clotted) is applied to either an acetate membrane soaked in a liquid buffer, or to a buffered agarosegel matrix, or into liquid in a capillary tube, and exposed to an electric current to separate the serum protein components into five major fractions by size and electrical charge: serum albumin, alpha-1 globulins, alpha-2 globulins, beta 1 and 2 globulins, and gamma globulins(Jenkins, 2019).

Electrophoresis is a method of separating proteins based on their physical properties. Serum is placed on a specific medium, and a charge is applied. The net charge (positive or negative) and the size and shape of the protein commonly are used in differentiating various serum proteins.

Several subsets of serum protein electrophoresis are available. The names of these subsets are based on the method that is used to separate and differentiate the various serum components. In zone electrophoresis, for example, different protein subtypes are placed in separate physical locations on a gel made from agar, cellulose, or other plant material.The proteins are stained, and their densities are calculated electronically to provide graphical data on the absolute and relative amounts of the various proteins. Further separation of protein subtypes is achieved by staining with an immunologically active agent, which results in immunofluorescence and immunofixation (Harris et al., 2012)

ACETATE OR GEL ELECTROPHORESIS

Proteins are separated by both electrical forces and electroendoosmostic forces. The net charge on a protein is based on the sum charge of its amino acids, and the pH of the buffer. Proteins are applied to a solid matrix such as an agarose gel, or a cellulose acetate membrane in a liquid buffer, and electric current is applied. Proteins with a negative charge will migrate towards the positively charged anode. Albumin has the most negative charge, and will migrate furthest towards the anode. Endoosmotic flow is the movement of liquid towards the cathode, which causes proteins with a weaker charge to move backwards from the application site. Gamma proteins are primarily separated by endoosmotic forces (Kaplan and Savor, 2015)

CAPILLARY ELECTROPHORESIS

In capillary electrophoresis, there is no solid matrix. Proteins are separated primarily by strong electroendosmotic forces. The sample is injected into a capillary with a negative surface charge. A high current is applied, and negatively charged proteins such as albumin try to move towards the anode. Liquid buffer flows towards the cathode, and drags proteins with a weaker charge

COMPONENTS OF SERUM PROTEIN ELECTROPHORESIS

The pattern of serum protein electrophoresis results depends on the fractions of two major types of protein: albumin and globulins. Albumin, the major protein component of serum, is produced by the liver under normal physiologic conditions. Globulins comprise a much smaller fraction of the total serum protein content. The subsets of these proteins and their relative quantity are the primary focus of the interpretation of serum protein electrophoresis (Keren, 2013).

Albumin, the largest peak, lies closest to the positive electrode. The next five components (globulins) are labeled alpha₁, alpha₂, beta₁, beta₂, and gamma. The peaks for these components lie toward the negative electrode, with the gamma peak being closest to that electrode. Figure 1shows a typical normal pattern for the distribution of proteins as determined by serum protein electrophoresis.

a.       ALBUMIN

The albumin band represents the largest protein component of human serum. The albumin level is decreased under circumstances in which there is less production of the protein by the liver or in which there is increased loss or degradation of this protein. Malnutrition, significant liver disease, renal loss (e.g., in nephrotic syndrome), hormone therapy, and pregnancy may account for a low albumin level. Burns also may result in a low albumin level. Levels of albumin are increased in patients with a relative reduction in serum water (e.g., dehydration).

b.      ALPHA FRACTION

Moving toward the negative portion of the gel (i.e., the negative electrode), the next peaks involve the alpha₁ and alpha₂ components. The alpha₁-protein fraction is comprised of alpha₁-antitrypsin, thyroid-binding globulin, and transcortin. Malignancy and acute inflammation (resulting from acute-phase reactants) can increase the alpha₁-protein band. A decreased alpha₁-protein band may occur because of alpha₁-antitrypsin deficiency or decreased production of the globulin as a result of liver disease. Ceruloplasmin, alpha₂-macroglobulin, and haptoglobin contribute to the alpha₂-protein band. The alpha₂ component is increased as an acute-phase reactant.

c.       BETA FRACTION

The beta fraction has two peaks labeled beta₁ and beta₂. Beta₁ is composed mostly of transferrin, and beta₂ contains beta-lipoprotein. IgA, IgM, and sometimes IgG, along with complement proteins, also can be identified in the beta fraction.

d.      GAMMA FRACTION

Much of the clinical interest is focused on the gamma region of the serum protein spectrum because immunoglobulins migrate to this region. It should be noted that immunoglobulins often can be found throughout the electrophoretic spectrum. C-reactive protein (CRP) is located in the area between the beta and gamma components.(Keren, 2013).

INDICATIONS

Serum protein electrophoresis commonly is performed when multiple myeloma is suspected. The examination also should be considered in other “red flag” situations.

If the examination is normal but multiple myeloma, Waldenström’smacroglobulinemia, primary amyloidosis, or a related disorder still is suspected, immunofixation also should be performed because this technique may be more sensitive in identifying a small monoclonal (M) protein (Keren, 2013).

Interpretation of Results

Plasma protein levels display reasonably predictable changes in response to acute inflammation, malignancy, trauma, necrosis, infarction, burns, and chemical injury. This so-called “acute-reaction protein pattern” involves increases in fibrinogen, alpha₁-antitrypsin, haptoglobin, ceruloplasmin, CRP, the C3 portion of complement, and alpha₁ acid glycoprotein. Often, there are associated decreases in the albumin and transferrin levels.Table below lists characteristic patterns of acute-reaction proteins found on serum protein electrophoresis, along with associated conditions or disorders.

WATER AND FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

1. DEFINE WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Water-soluble vitamins are those that are dissolved in water and readily absorbed into tissues for immediate use. Because they are not stored in the body, they need to be replenished regularly in our diet. The water-soluble vitamins include ascorbic acid (vitamin C), thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B₆ (pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine), folacin, vitamin B₁₂, biotin, and pantothenic acid.

• Explain the general functions of water soluble vitamin

The followings are the functions of water soluble vitamins:

1. Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) – Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important to nerve function
2. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) – Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important for normal vision and skin health.
3. Vitamin B3 (Niacin) – Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important for nervous system, digestive system, and skin health
4. Pantothenic acid – Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism
5. Biotin – Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism
6. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) – Part of an enzyme needed for protein metabolism; helps make red blood cells
7. Folic acid – Part of an enzyme needed for making DNA and new cells, especially red blood cells
8. Cobalamin (vitamin B12)  – Part of an enzyme needed for making new cells; important to nerve function
9. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) – Antioxidant; part of an enzyme needed for protein metabolism; important for immune system health; aids in iron absorption

• LIST THE DEFICIENCY DISEASE OF VITAMINS

Vitamin deficiency is the condition of a long-term lack of a vitamin. When caused by not enough vitamin intake it is classified as a primary deficiency, whereas when due to an underlying disorder such as malabsorption it is called a secondary deficiency. An underlying disorder may be metabolic – as in a genetic defect for converting tryptophan to niacin – or from lifestyle choices that increase vitamin needs, such as smoking or drinking alcohol.

DEFICIENCY OF WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Vitamin	Symptoms & Diagnosis
Thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency	Weight loss, emotional disturbances, impaired sensory perception, weakness and pain in the limbs, and periods of irregular heartbeat. Deficiency is assessed by red blood cell status and urinary output.
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) deficiency	Deficiency causes painful red tongue with sore throat, chapped and cracked lips, and inflammation at the corners of the mouth (angular cheilitis). Eyes can be itchy, watery, bloodshot and sensitive to light. Riboflavin deficiency also causes anemia with red blood cells that are normal in size and hemoglobin content, but reduced in number.
Niacin (Vitamin B3) deficiency	Deficiency causes pellagra, a reversible nutritional wasting disease characterized by four classic symptoms often referred to as the four Ds: diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and death. The signs and symptoms of niacin deficiency start to revert within days of oral supplementation with large amounts of the vitamin.
Pantothenic acid (Vitamin B5) deficiency	Irritability, fatigue, and apathy.
Vitamin B6 deficiency	microcytic anemia, electroencephalographic abnormalities, dermatitis, seborrhoeic dermatitis-like eruption, atrophic glossitis with ulceration, angular cheilitis, conjunctivitis, and intertrigo. Neurologic symptoms of depression, somnolence, confusion, and neuropathy (due to impaired sphingosine synthesis) and microcytic anemia
Biotin (Vitamin B7) deficiency	Rashes including red, patchy ones near the mouth and fine, brittle hair. Hallucinations, Lethargy, Mild depression, which may progress to profound fatigue and, eventually, to somnolence, Generalized muscular pains (myalgia) and Paresthesias. Decreased urinary excretion of biotin and increased urinary excretion of 3-hydroxyisovaleric acid are better indicators of biotin deficiency than concentration in the blood.
Folate (Vitamin B9) deficiency	Loss of appetite and weight loss can occur. Additional signs are weakness, sore tongue, headaches, heart palpitations, irritability, and behavioral disorders. In adults, anemia (macrocytic, megaloblastic anemia) can be a sign of advanced folate deficiency.
Vitamin B12 deficiency	Anemia (reduction of red blood cells), and the presence of limb neuropathy and digestive disorders.A wide range of associated symptoms may include angular cheilitis, mouth ulcers, bleeding gums, hair loss and thinning, premature greying, a look of exhaustion and dark circles around the eyes, as well as brittle nails.
Vitamin C deficiency	Deficiency leads to weakness, weight loss and general aches and pains. Longer-term depletion affects connective tissues, severe gum disease, and bleeding from the skin.

• FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Fat-soluble vitamins are dissolved in fats. They are absorbed by fat globules that travel through the small intestines and distributed through the body in the bloodstream. Fat-soluble vitamins are not readily excreted, they can accumulate to toxic levels if taken in excess. Where a well-balanced diet can’t cause toxicity, overdosing on fat-soluble vitamin supplements can.

FUNCTIONS OF FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Fat-soluble vitamins play integral roles in a multitude of physiological processes such as vision, bone health, immune function, and coagulation. This review discusses the biochemistry, transport, and roles of these vitamins highlighting deficiency syndromes and potential toxicities.

DEFICIENCY OF FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Vitamin	Symptoms & Diagnosis
Vitamin A deficiency	Can cause nyctalopia (night blindness) and keratomalacia, the latter leading to permanent blindness if not treated..
Vitamin D deficiency	Usually asymptomatic, causes reduce bone density associated with the development of schizophrenia.
Vitamin E deficiency	Causes poor conduction of electrical impulses along nerves due to changes in nerve membrane structure and function.
Vitamin K deficiency	Signs and symptoms can include sensitivity to bruising, bleeding gums, nosebleeds, and heavy menstrual bleeding in women

REFERENCES

Gilbert C. What is vitamin A and why do we need it? Community Eye Health. 2013;26(84):65. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

Shahidi F, de Camargo AC. Tocopherols and Tocotrienols in Common and Emerging Dietary Sources: Occurrence, Applications, and Health Benefits. Int J Mol Sci. 2016 Oct 20;17(10) [PMC free article] [PubMed]

Booth SL. Vitamin K: food composition and dietary intakes. Food Nutr Res. 2012;56 [PMC free article] [PubMed]

Russell McDowell (2000). Vitamins in Animal and Human Nutrition (2 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-8138-2630-1.

“Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Tolerable Upper Intake Levels, Vitamins”(PDF). Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, US National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2019.

“Vitamin B12 Deficiency: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment”. 28 July 2021. Archived from the original on 28 July 2021. Retrieved 13 September 2021.

WATER AND FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

1. DEFINE WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Water-soluble vitamins are those that are dissolved in water and readily absorbed into tissues for immediate use. Because they are not stored in the body, they need to be replenished regularly in our diet. The water-soluble vitamins include ascorbic acid (vitamin C), thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B₆ (pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine), folacin, vitamin B₁₂, biotin, and pantothenic acid.

• Explain the general functions of water soluble vitamin

The followings are the functions of water soluble vitamins:

1. Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) – Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important to nerve function
2. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) – Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important for normal vision and skin health.
3. Vitamin B3 (Niacin) – Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important for nervous system, digestive system, and skin health
4. Pantothenic acid – Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism
5. Biotin – Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism
6. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) – Part of an enzyme needed for protein metabolism; helps make red blood cells
7. Folic acid – Part of an enzyme needed for making DNA and new cells, especially red blood cells
8. Cobalamin (vitamin B12)  – Part of an enzyme needed for making new cells; important to nerve function
9. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) – Antioxidant; part of an enzyme needed for protein metabolism; important for immune system health; aids in iron absorption

• LIST THE DEFICIENCY DISEASE OF VITAMINS

Vitamin deficiency is the condition of a long-term lack of a vitamin. When caused by not enough vitamin intake it is classified as a primary deficiency, whereas when due to an underlying disorder such as malabsorption it is called a secondary deficiency. An underlying disorder may be metabolic – as in a genetic defect for converting tryptophan to niacin – or from lifestyle choices that increase vitamin needs, such as smoking or drinking alcohol.

DEFICIENCY OF WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Vitamin	Symptoms & Diagnosis
Thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency	Weight loss, emotional disturbances, impaired sensory perception, weakness and pain in the limbs, and periods of irregular heartbeat. Deficiency is assessed by red blood cell status and urinary output.
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) deficiency	Deficiency causes painful red tongue with sore throat, chapped and cracked lips, and inflammation at the corners of the mouth (angular cheilitis). Eyes can be itchy, watery, bloodshot and sensitive to light. Riboflavin deficiency also causes anemia with red blood cells that are normal in size and hemoglobin content, but reduced in number.
Niacin (Vitamin B3) deficiency	Deficiency causes pellagra, a reversible nutritional wasting disease characterized by four classic symptoms often referred to as the four Ds: diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and death. The signs and symptoms of niacin deficiency start to revert within days of oral supplementation with large amounts of the vitamin.
Pantothenic acid (Vitamin B5) deficiency	Irritability, fatigue, and apathy.
Vitamin B6 deficiency	microcytic anemia, electroencephalographic abnormalities, dermatitis, seborrhoeic dermatitis-like eruption, atrophic glossitis with ulceration, angular cheilitis, conjunctivitis, and intertrigo. Neurologic symptoms of depression, somnolence, confusion, and neuropathy (due to impaired sphingosine synthesis) and microcytic anemia
Biotin (Vitamin B7) deficiency	Rashes including red, patchy ones near the mouth and fine, brittle hair. Hallucinations, Lethargy, Mild depression, which may progress to profound fatigue and, eventually, to somnolence, Generalized muscular pains (myalgia) and Paresthesias. Decreased urinary excretion of biotin and increased urinary excretion of 3-hydroxyisovaleric acid are better indicators of biotin deficiency than concentration in the blood.
Folate (Vitamin B9) deficiency	Loss of appetite and weight loss can occur. Additional signs are weakness, sore tongue, headaches, heart palpitations, irritability, and behavioral disorders. In adults, anemia (macrocytic, megaloblastic anemia) can be a sign of advanced folate deficiency.
Vitamin B12 deficiency	Anemia (reduction of red blood cells), and the presence of limb neuropathy and digestive disorders.A wide range of associated symptoms may include angular cheilitis, mouth ulcers, bleeding gums, hair loss and thinning, premature greying, a look of exhaustion and dark circles around the eyes, as well as brittle nails.
Vitamin C deficiency	Deficiency leads to weakness, weight loss and general aches and pains. Longer-term depletion affects connective tissues, severe gum disease, and bleeding from the skin.

• FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Fat-soluble vitamins are dissolved in fats. They are absorbed by fat globules that travel through the small intestines and distributed through the body in the bloodstream. Fat-soluble vitamins are not readily excreted, they can accumulate to toxic levels if taken in excess. Where a well-balanced diet can’t cause toxicity, overdosing on fat-soluble vitamin supplements can.

FUNCTIONS OF FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Fat-soluble vitamins play integral roles in a multitude of physiological processes such as vision, bone health, immune function, and coagulation. This review discusses the biochemistry, transport, and roles of these vitamins highlighting deficiency syndromes and potential toxicities.

DEFICIENCY OF FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Vitamin	Symptoms & Diagnosis
Vitamin A deficiency	Can cause nyctalopia (night blindness) and keratomalacia, the latter leading to permanent blindness if not treated..
Vitamin D deficiency	Usually asymptomatic, causes reduce bone density associated with the development of schizophrenia.
Vitamin E deficiency	Causes poor conduction of electrical impulses along nerves due to changes in nerve membrane structure and function.
Vitamin K deficiency	Signs and symptoms can include sensitivity to bruising, bleeding gums, nosebleeds, and heavy menstrual bleeding in women

REFERENCES

Gilbert C. What is vitamin A and why do we need it? Community Eye Health. 2013;26(84):65. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

Shahidi F, de Camargo AC. Tocopherols and Tocotrienols in Common and Emerging Dietary Sources: Occurrence, Applications, and Health Benefits. Int J Mol Sci. 2016 Oct 20;17(10) [PMC free article] [PubMed]

Booth SL. Vitamin K: food composition and dietary intakes. Food Nutr Res. 2012;56 [PMC free article] [PubMed]

Russell McDowell (2000). Vitamins in Animal and Human Nutrition (2 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-8138-2630-1.

“Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Tolerable Upper Intake Levels, Vitamins”(PDF). Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, US National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2019.

“Vitamin B12 Deficiency: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment”. 28 July 2021. Archived from the original on 28 July 2021. Retrieved 13 September 2021.

SUSTENANCE AND MAINTENANCE BUSINESS GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

SUSTENANCE AND MAINTENANCE BUSINESS GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

QUESTION

As a business man for about 7 years experience, invalidating, planning and implementation to see the light of your business success, but still suffering from certain constraints, explain way and manners in which you can sustain and maintain business growth and development

INTRODUCTION

Businesses organization of any type and size look for ways to expand their market share and increase revenues. Organization often choose to implement specific growth strategies to overcome several challenges faced and advance their business. Business growth and development is a phenomenon that occurs when business owners, employees and outside factors influence the success of a company. A business grows when it expands a customer base, increases revenue or produces more product.

Growth and development is the goal of most businesses and is the reason behind many decisions that affect the daily workings of a company both internally and externally. Business growth is impacted by consumer trends, market opportunities and decisions made by company leadership.

Growth and development of a business organization takes planning and concentrated efforts that fall into these main categories: Organic growth which happens when a business creates the right conditions for expansion. This includes physically expanding office space to allow for company growth or increasing product offerings;A strategic approach which focuses on long-term growth through specific initiatives. Businesses often move into this growth stage after a period of organic growth. Companies may try to gain a share in untapped markets or plan to produce new inventory; Partnership/merger is growth and development strategy which occurs when a company joins with another business to create more market opportunities and finally an internal growth strategy that works to maximize internal processes to increase business and revenue.

WAY AND MANNERS THAT CAN SUSTAIN AND MAINTAIN BUSINESS GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

For business organization to surmount their challenges, the need to focus on planning. A business plan is a written document of research proposing business activities before a business owner begins developing a product. Planning should begin with the development of a forecast for profits, income, and cash flow for five years.

Chaudhry et al. defined strategic planning as the process of awareness on business environment, documentation about the future course of action, and awareness of short and long-term implications of strategies.

Therefore, business organization need to face the challenge of developing strategies which will add value for sustainable growth and development. Thus, strategic planning is a process aimed at documenting strategies which may result in a positive performance of the business. 

There for the business organization to be sustained and maintain business growth and development the following must be put into consideration

1. Market penetration: Market penetration occurs when a business tries to generate further growth within their current market. To do this they may try to lower prices or increase marketing efforts to gain more market share. Increasing brand awareness can be an effective way to implement this strategy.
2. Product development: Businesses may choose a growth strategy that involves innovating current products or creating new ones to increase revenue. Some companies choose to take existing inventory and add new features to attract more customers. Investing in the design and creation of new products is one way businesses foster growth.
3. Market expansion: In the market expansion method, a business tries to expand in their current market by reaching untapped customer bases. For example, an office supply company may try to gain market share by selling to educational institutions, healthcare organizations and government agencies instead of strictly selling to corporate office clients.
4. Vertical integration: Companies who decide to growth through vertical integration strategies take on another part of the manufacturing or distribution process. This may mean that a company begins to produce their own packaging materials or buys a factory that produces a key item for a product.
5. Productivity and efficiency: Some businesses grow by changing their processes to increase productivity. Efficient production methods can help cut costs and increase revenue. A business may choose to conduct an audit of their manufacturing processes, distribution methods and other parts of their production chain.
6. New geographies: Investing marketing efforts into expansion in other locations can also be a growth strategy for businesses. This can mean regional, national or even worldwide expansion of product offerings and distribution. Offering products outside of a current geographical area can generate new revenue streams if distribution is also handled effectively.
7. Share of wallet: By focusing on customer retention and quality service, companies can initiate growth by expanding sales to current customers. Selling to existing customers typically costs less than other marketing efforts. This strategy can be effective for companies with excellent customer service practices and a loyal customer base.
8. Diversification: Companies that choose to grow through diversification create new products for a completely new market. This kind of growth may mean moving into international markets or areas where the company has no prior sales history. Some companies do this by looking for areas of large-scale expansion, hoping to gain market share. Diversified companies may own a stake in multiple industries through a range of product offerings.
9. Acquisitions: Companies may implement a growth strategy by buying another business. A company might buy out a competitor to absorb their market share and acquire their assets. The parent company will then experience growth in sales and revenue. This strategy encourages more immediate growth because a business is essentially buying into a market instead of having to invest time in organic growth methods.
10. New channels: Offering products through new distribution channels is another way for businesses to expand. For example, a company may decide to offer product in retail stores after operating exclusively online. A company may also decide to work with consumers instead of selling just business to business.
11. New business models: Changing the way you do business can affect growth patterns in a company. When a business decides to make operational changes, they have the chance to create more growth opportunities using other strategies.
12. Investment: Owning shares and investing in other companies may be a way to expand business growth. When a company uses their revenue to increase the assets of another business, they have the opportunity to receive benefits as a stakeholder. This may include dividends, stock options or other investment earnings.
13. Market segmentation: By focusing on a small segment of industry and growing specifically in that area, businesses often find growth opportunities. Small businesses can benefit from this strategy in markets where big businesses already dominate a large portion of the market share.
14. Business partnerships: Strategic partnerships can increase business growth by leveraging the key elements of two or more brands. In this strategy, businesses often create a contract with clear terms outlining the agreement for both parties. Companies from different industries or markets benefit from gaining the attention of another consumer group.

CONCLUSION

Business intelligence including the technologies, processes, and applications needed to provide complete data to enable productive decisions by managers is one area explored by business organization to overcome the challenges of sustaining growth and development. Thus is believed that adopted the strategies outline above the any business organization can sustain growth and development.

REFERENCES

1. Crals, E., and Vereeck, L. (2004). Sustainable Entrepreneurship in SMEs. Theory and Practice. Research Gate Journals. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net
2. Erhum, M.O. (2015). A Sustainable Approach to Economic Development in Nigeria. A Legal Perspective. Journal of Economic and Sustainable Development 6(14); 1-6.
3. Okpara, J. O. (2011). Factors constraining the growth and survival of SME in Nigeria: Implications for poverty alleviation. Management Research Review, 34, 156-171. doi:10.1108/01409171111102786