ENEMS MICROSYSTEMS RESEARCH SPOT: January 03

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Tuesday, 3 January 2023

AN ASSESSMENT OF RENTAL VARIATIONS IN COMMERCIAL PROPERTIES IN WUSE 1 AND WUSE II ABUJA

AN ASSESSMENT OF RENTAL VARIATIONS IN COMMERCIAL PROPERTIES IN WUSE 1 AND WUSE II ABUJA

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study

Commercial properties in form of housing or real estate has long been perceived by the general public as a form of basic necessity and often represents the one single largest investment in real estate investment portfolio. Toivonen and Viitanen (2016) underlined that commercial property market is closely linked to the surrounding society as commercial buildings have several economic, environmental, political, social and cultural influences. Toivonen and Viitanen (2015) also analysed the forces of shaping of future commercial property market. Many important indicators, such as demand, supply, vacancy rates, absorption volume, proposed projects, as well as economic indicators and legal and tax matters are being included in the regular property market overviews.

According to Boon and Higgins (2017), rental value is a key parameter for measuring real property performance. It is also a major cost for tenants and an important source of income for the real estate investors. Key property market participants such as investors and developers often use rental value as an indicator to appraise the viability of their real estate development and investment schemes. On this basis, understanding the nature and variation in rental value of commercial property provides a better comprehension of the dynamics of the commercial property market. Also, rental growth indices are often incorporated into discounted cash flow analysis for the appraisal of real property investments (Boon and Higgins, 2017).

Rural – urban migration and rapid growth in population have led to higher level of urbanization in Nigeria cities which have resulted to high demand for the existing limited supply of commercial property consequent rent for such properties increased considerably. This trend has continued with the effect that “the average worker is paying 30% to 40% of his salary as rent” (Oshadiya, 2005). Thus the increase in rents on the properties has led to the variation of rent on properties. Thus, professionals in the real estate industry in Nigeria require better knowledge of commercial property rental dynamics as well as the key factors that influence changes in commercial property rents in Abuja. It is against this background that this study seeks to assess the rental variation in commercial properties in Wuse I and Wuse 2 Abuja

1.2 Statement of research problem

Problems of real estate investment especially commercial properties in urban centres has often been viewed in terms of quantitative deficiency and qualitative inadequacy with little or no attention to the problems of increasing rent. As there are many business outfits struggling to get accommodation in terms of offices, shops warehouse etc, most of those that already have a roof over their heads in rented accommodation, especially the majority low income urbanities are not comfortable because of sprawling rent increases. The problem of variation in rental value of residential property reached a peak during the crisis stage in the early 1970s which led the then Federal Military Government to set up a Rent Panel to review, among other things, the level structure of rents in urban centers. Today, the rent situation has not improved rather it has been further worsened by the equally sprawling inflation which has tremendously shot up the cost of building materials. The purpose of this study is, therefore, to carry out an assessment of rental variations in commercial properties in Wuse zone I and Wuse II Abuja.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The aim of this research is to assess rental variations in commercial properties in Wuse zone I and Wuse II Abuja.

The specific objectives of the study are:

To identify the types of commercial properties prevalent in Wuse zone I and Wuse II.
To assess rent passing on commercial properties in the study area
To examine the factors affecting rental values of commercial property in the study area
To examine the causes of rental value variation Wuse zone I and Wuse II Abuja.

1.4 Research questions

The following research shall guide the researcher to achieve the aim and objectives of this study:

What are the types of commercial properties prevalent in Wuse zone I and Wuse II Abuja?
What is the rent passing on commercial properties in the study area
What are the factors affecting rental value of commercial properties in the study area?
What are the causes of rental value variation in Wuse zone I and Wuse II Abuja?

1.5 Significance of the study

The finding of this study will be of benefit to the following groups;

Firstly, tenants who are charged rents based on different reasons, especially when the properties are of the same nature (physically). This will again enable the investors not only to understand how occupier thinks, but also why and the things they consider before acquiring properties for certain uses.

Secondly, the generality of the public can now understand the reason why the rents being commanded by commercial properties have to differ and changes over the years. Lastly, this research work will help to determine the factors influencing commercial properties which are an essential pre-requisite to successful development as well as stimulating interest in the students to carryout out further research on the topic.

1.6 Scope and limitations of the study

The study is analyze the variation in the rental value of commercial properties in Wuse zone I and Wuse II Abuja. The scope of this study will be limited to a period of five years (2015 to 2020) and it is restricted to commercial properties such as shops, warehouse and offices available in Wuse zone I and Wuse II Abuja.

Limitation

Expectedly, this work met with some hindrances during the stage of data collection. The issue of rent passing on a property (commercial) is usually regarded as classified information, which is not easily disclosed to people particularly researchers. This was largely suspected to be the reason why some Estate surveyors, property owners, tenants, Estate firms, property companies and even Estate agents who were approached through oral interviews, discussions and visitations found it rather difficult to reveal essential information despite every explanation that the exercise is strictly for academic purposes, a good number of them, still nursed the fear that it may be for property rating and taxation purposes.

There was also the problem of logistics occasioned by the society. The researcher worked with a very light budget throughout the period of study as the frequent and repeated visits to relevant persons and offices entailed quite some money. Moreover, also recall that some of the interview respondents were not co-operative as they kept on playing to the gallery as a means of avoiding supplying the required information. On a general note however, the researcher ensured that these bottle – necks never affected the findings of this study since the success far outweighed the hindrances as enumerated.

Operational definition of terms

Rent: The universal dictionary of the English language (2016) defined rent as the regular payment made for the use of land or buildings that belongs to someone else. The Economist defined rent as “the revenue from land resources that is equal to the value of its marginal services rendered in a productive process” (Richfield, 2011).

Land: Section 205 of the property act of 1925 defined land to include land of any tenure and mines and minerals wealth or not held apart from the surface and building or part of the building, and other corporeal hereditament, benefit right or privileges in or derived from land.

Property: Property in a technical legal term means “a unit or object whether tangible or intangible upon which interest is created and over which control or right of ownership is exercised by the owner of interest.

Landed Property: Landed property or landed estate is a property that generates income for the owner without the owner having to do the actual work of the estate.

Rental Value: Is the maximum amount which a property will let in the open market at any giving time.

Real Estate: Is a legal concept encompassing all the interests, right and benefit related to ownership. Properties consist of the right of ownership which entitle the owner to a specific interest or interest in what is a physical entity and its ownership Olusegun (2003).

THE IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL PROPERTY LOCATION ON RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY VALUES IN IBADAN CHAPTER ONE

THE IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL PROPERTY LOCATION ON RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY VALUES IN IBADAN

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Industrial revolution and subsequent growth of rapid industrialisation have caused serious threats to sustainable development of both developed and developing countries. While modem industries extracted various natural resources, other raw materials and energy from the environment to produce material goods and services, such uses and production processes have resulted in large scale emissions of wastes into the environment causing severe threats to traditional agrarian practices, suppressing the values of rural and urban property and reducing the quality of human life (Baby, 2003). Although most of the developed countries had responded to this social menace by developing a variety of technological, economic and legal regimes for regulating the polluting behaviour of firms, the developing countries have not attained sufficient progress in regulating industrial pollution and its influences on their economy and society due to lack of technological alternatives, failures of markets, institutions, government policies, mass poverty and illiteracy.

A residential area is a land use in which housing predominates, as opposed to industrial and commercial areas. These include single-family housing, multi-family residential, or mobile homes (Kilpatrick, 1999). Zoning for residential use may permit some services or work opportunities or may totally exclude business and industry. It may permit high density land use or only permit low density uses. Residential zoning usually includes a smaller FAR (Floor Area Ratio) than business, commercial or industrial/manufacturing zoning. The area may be large or small (Knight, 2015). Residential areas are zoned for living and any industrial activities are not expected to operate in these areas so as to avoid nuisance. Industrial properties are properties used for industrial purposes. Types of industrial property include factory-office multiuse property; factory -warehouse multiuse property; heavy manufacturing buildings; industrial parks; light manufacturing buildings; and research and development parks (Barrons, 2015). The random development of small scale industrial and workshop activities in residential areas of Arab municipalities in Israelis causes environmental nuisances such as noise, air, water and soil pollution, and heat emissions. These nuisances are both harmful to the environment and local populations (Sofer, Gnaim , Potcher, 2012). Industrial sector in Kerala in India is one of the major productive and wealth creating sectors. However, it remains as a major polluter, resulting in the degradation of the health of local population and reduction in property values (Baby, 2003).

More so, air pollution, while being a negative externality, has led to lower property values in Bogotá, Columbia (Fernado, 2000). Also, in Delhi, environmental pollution has reached alarming levels, Industry is one of the most important causes. There are over 100,000 mostly small unauthorised units located in residential areas many of them is highly polluting chemical, metal, asbestos, rubber, and plastic factories. Unhealthy conditions prevail where industry and residences are intermixed (Bentinck and Chikara, 2001). Also, there are traces of areas in developing countries such as African countries where there is concentration of industries located close to residential areas such as Kenya, Morocco, Egypt, Sudan, etc.

Furthermore, In West African region particularly Nigeria, there are concentration of industries located close to residential areas most of which are operating illegally and it is very common in Lagos state such as Isolo, Mushin, Apapa, Ikotun, Ikeja, etc. There are also many clustering of localization of industries in various part of Nigeria such as Ogun State, Port Harcourt, Delta State, Ibadan, etc. In Ibadan, there are areas characterized by concentration of industry such as Bodija, Oke Ado, Oluyole Industrial Estate, among others. Although the development of industrial properties should be based on mono-functional policy concept of separating industry and housing, residents may be affected by industrial activities due to multiple perceived disamenities such as noise, traffic, congestion, air pollution, water pollution, land pollution, and obstruction of view. This study will contribute to the planning debate by elaborating on the implication of the presence of industrial properties such as factories on direct residential properties. This study aims at assessing negative externalities from industrial sites on nearby residential property values in Ibadan and also to assess the magnitude of such impact on the residential property values.

The development of industrial and workshop activities in residential areas in Ibadan is causing environmental nuisance such as noise, air, water, soil pollution, and heat emission that are harmful to the health of dwellers in these areas and also affect the value of residential properties located in these areas in Ibadan. Industrial activities being a major producer of environmental nuisances are concentrated in specific zones in Ibadan, which is well monitored. Nevertheless, there are a number of cases where residential land uses are mixed with industrial activities some areas in Ibadan which may arise probably through illegal means or through conversion of use which affect residential property values located in these areas and also affect the wellbeing and safety of people that reside in these areas and in turn affect property values which is evident on the rent and prices that tenants or purchasers are willing to offer for such properties. Industrial activities directly or indirectly create problems which are detrimental to the health and survival, and wellbeing of people residing in residential properties located close to industrial sites in Ibadan, industrial activities also affect residential property values which are located close to industrial properties.

The noise, water, air, soil pollution from industrial activities can have a negative effect on property prices (Anstine, 2003; Nelson, 2004; David 2006). It is supposed that noxious facilities would affect house values significantly. Clark (2006) finds that there are consistently negative impact on houses proximity to factories with statistically important influence on residential property values. It gives out evidence on the price drop on the real sale price of houses if the houses are located proximity to factories.

Environmental pollution which include land, water, air, and noise pollution from industrial activities have negative effect on both residential property values and on the health and wellbeing of the occupants of those properties and thus reduces the values of residential properties because people will not want to live close to areas where their health will be endangered and where they will be disturb by frequent noise and they will want to live in areas where their health will be secured (Sofer et al., 2012). This issues have been addressed by many researchers so as to proffer a lasting solution to these negative effect but their recommended measures is yet to bring these negative externalities on residential property values as a result of proximity to industrial properties to a satisfactory level which prompted this study. This study aims at identifying the adverse effect of the operations of industrial activities on the surrounding residential properties in Ibadan.

1.2 Problem Statement

The distance of residential properties industrial sites has a statistically significant negative effect on the values of residential properties (Friso, and Henri, 2009). However the effect is largely localized within a relatively short distance from the nearest industrial site. (Bentinck and Chikara, 2001). Absence of solid waste disposal facilities by some industries in Ibadan causes discarded litters from the factories and end up in heaps along the streets. These materials may contaminate adjacent properties or be disposed of indiscriminately and contaminate residential properties. The presence of industrial areas close to residential areas in Ibadan causes overstressed of the limited infrastructural facilities provided and adverse environmental condition. Factories also cause the most serious water pollution. Industrial wastewater seeps into the groundwater, polluting the water.

It has even been claimed that vibrations caused by machines are so severe that cracks are showing up in the walls of houses (Bentinck and Chikara, 2001). Industrial machines, plants and generators, etc. is considered noise to most people. Typically, little effort is made to dispose of toxic materials from industry properly, which often are by products of manufacturing industry. Can lead to economic obsolescence of residential properties situated close to industrial properties when there is little or no demand on contaminated properties because prospective tenants will not want to endanger their health. In cases of severe contamination sale may not be possible or the sale price may have to be reduced.

There are concentrations of industries in some areas in Nigeria, especially Lagos, Ibadan, Port Harcourt, etc. And some industrial sites are located close to residential areas. Activities from these industrial sites produces some kind of nuisance to the nearby residential neighbourhood such as air pollution (from burning of fossil fuels from factory plants and machinery, factory generators, etc.), water pollution (i.e., the discharge of industrial by-product and hazardous chemicals into streams, rivers, etc.), industrial waste generation, and noise pollution from factory machines and generators. All this nuisance produced from industrial sites directly or indirectly have an impact (usually negative) on the values of residential properties situated close to them. Although industrial properties are not meant to be situated within residential neighbourhood but there are instances in Nigeria where industrial properties are located close to residential properties such as it is found in Lagos State (i.e. Ikeja, Ikorodu, Apapa, etc.), Port Harcourt, Ibadan (i.e Old Bodija, Oke ado, Oluyole Industrial Estate, etc.). The activities from these industries will undoubtedly have impact on the values of residential properties located close to them. The activities from these industrial sites generate noise and contamination within the environment where industrial properties such as factories are located close to residential properties, and the noise and contamination in turns bring about stigma on the residential properties located where industrial operations are being held and thus affect their values. The noise and contamination produced from industrial operations also have health implication of those occupying the affected residential properties. Also, prospective tenant may not want to settle in contaminated environment and where there is undesired noise and this will have a great effect on the property values situated in a contaminated and noisy environment.

According to Thomson (2003) industrial revolution and subsequent growth of rapid industrialization have caused serious threats to sustainable development of both developed and developing countries. He also pointed out that industrial production processes have resulted into large scale emission of waste into the environment causing severe threat to traditional agrarian practices, suppressing the values of rural and urban residential properties and reducing quality of human life. Although he and other researchers has responded to this social menace by developing and recommending measures to regulate the polluting behaviour of firms but had not attained sufficient progress in regulating industrial pollution and its influence on human life and property values.

Realizing the need for developing a sustainable economy through an appropriate environmental engineering, government has formulated a number of policies from research works and enacted legislations. Despite these initiatives, the process of industrialization continues to inflict damages to human health and property values in Ibadan. Industrial activities operating close to residential properties in Ibadan area produce impact of noise pollution and environmental contamination which have adverse effect on the health, safety and wellbeing of people occupying the residential properties and also have negative effect on residential property values. But in Nigeria, there is no legal frame research upon which noise pollution can be abated. The complexity and magnitude of the problem of environmental pollution caused by industrial activities (which this study focus on) and its impact on both occupants in the affected residential areas and the residential property values calls for effective and well planned measures in Ibadan and Nigeria at large. Based on the above discussion, the following questions agitates my mind:

Research Questions

a. What are the responses of tenants to the nuisance produced by industrial activities?

b. What are the environmental problems posed on the residential properties as a result of nearness to industrial sites?

c. What impact do environmental problems have on residential property values?

d. How are the values of residential properties affected at varying distances from industrial sites?

1.3 Aim and Objectives

The study aims at determining the associated problems of siting industrial properties within residential areas in Ibadan, with a view to determining the effect of industrial land use on rental values of neighbouring residential properties.

Towards achieving this aim, the following objectives are set to:

i. identify the industrial properties located in the study area.

ii. identify the environmental problems posed on the residents by the location of the industries.

iii. examine the impact of the environmental problems on the rental values of residential properties

iv. examine the rental values of residential properties at varying distances from the industries.

1.4 Justification of Study

Despite the fact that there is concentration of industries in many parts of the Nigeria and where in some instances, there is presence of location of industrial properties close to residential properties. Government and its agencies, and researchers in the area of real estate do not give much attention to the problems associated with siting industrial properties close to residential properties which prompted this study. This aspect of research has not gained the focus of researchers in Nigeria and many developing countries. More so, what prompted me to this area of research is that, this area of study has not been well researched by researchers in Nigeria and most developing world, and identifying the existence of concentration of industries within residential properties in Ibadan especially in the study area and realizing the need to address the problems of siting industrial activities close to residential properties in Nigeria, brought about my interest in this area of study.

This study will assess the effect of negative externalities produced by industrial activities on residential property values as a result of nearness of residential properties to the industrial properties by comparing the variation in rental values and/or purchase prices (capital value, of recently sold) of the residential properties within the industrial area with the prices and rents of residential properties located a bit far away from where the industrial activities takes place in Oluyole, Ibadan. This study will also examine the impact of negative externalities of industrial activities on residential property values in the polluted areas in Ibadan by focusing and noting the size (large or small) and the nature of industrial operations. The study area of this research work is majorly characterised by medium scale industry. Thus, this study will focus on the effect of operations of medium scale and small scale industry on the residential property values in Ibadan. This study will only focus on the negative or adverse effect of industrial activities on surrounding residential property values in the study area.

Lastly, this study will call for the attention of researchers and government and its agencies to the issue of siting industrial properties close to residential properties in Nigeria and this study will try to enlighten and educate professionals in the field of real estate the problems associated with presence of industrial properties within residential neighbourhood and the effect on residential property values.

1.5 Scope of Study

This study focuses or is restricted to the assessment of the adverse effect or negative externalities of industrial activities operating close to residential areas in Oluyole Industrial Estate in Ibadan i.e., the adverse effect of industrial activities on the residential property values within and around, Oluyole Industrial Estate in Ibadan. This study will also be restricted to evaluating the effect of noise and air pollution, and greenhouse effect produced by industrial activities on the residential property values in the study area. This study will also compare rental and/or capital values of residential properties within the estate with the residential properties situated outside or not too close or a bit far from Oluyole Industrial Estate but within Oluyole, Ibadan area.

Oluyole Industrial Estate is an industrial estate where there is presence of residential properties located close to it. The activities from this industrial estate produces noise, air, and water pollution which affect the values of residential properties that is situated close to the industrial estate directly or indirectly which is the focus of this study. Although the industrial estate can also have positive effect on the values of residential properties located close to them in form of nearness to sources of employment. The reason behind choosing Ibadan as area of study is that there are presence of concentration of industries situated close to residential properties in some areas in Ibadan particularly the study area and it is the area am familiar with.

Finally, this study will not dwell much on positive effect of locating residential properties close to industrial properties but this study will focus on negative externalities or adverse effect of industrial activities on the residential property values in Ibadan.

1.6 Limitations of the Study

The major shortcomings of this study were that of scope, coverage, time frame, financial constraint, and lack of response from some of the respondents. Due to the nature of this study, two groups of respondent (estate firms and tenants/occupiers) are administered with two separate questionnaires. Administration of questionnaires started with the estate firms in order to ensure faster retrieval of questionnaires, but since the period for administration was not far from the festive season, some firms extended their resumption date while some firms that resumed earlier enough delayed the retrieval of questionnaires. Some firms relocated from their previous location making it very difficult to get across to them.

Administration of questionnaires on tenants during the study also posed some challenges. During the working days, the number of tenants that could possibly be captured is always very low as many of them are usually in their office or somewhere doing their various business while on weekends the tenants would seem to be available only for some of them to present series of excuses for not been able to fill the questionnaires. Incessant pleading and series of explanations had to be resorted to in order to encourage filling of the questionnaires by respondents assisted in achieving up to the number of respondent used for the study.

In addition, the time frame required for the project was a limiting factor which made it impossible for some questionnaires to be retrieved, high cost of transportation during questionnaire administration due to fuel chronic fuel scarcity, and there was lack of adequate fund meant to make this project a success. However, despite various limitations faced, it is affirmed that they contributed no negative impact or influence to the result of the study.

1.7 Study Area

Ibadan is the capital of Oyo state and the third largest metropolitan city in Nigeria, after Lagos and Kano with a population of 1,338,659 according to the 2006 census. Located between coordinates 7⁰23’47″N and 7.39639⁰N, 3⁰55’0″E and 3.916667⁰E, Ibadan is also the largest metropolitan geographical area in Nigeria. Ibadan is located in south western Nigeria, about120km east of the border with the Republic of Benin in the forest zone close to the boundary between the forest and the savannah. The city ranges in elevation from 150m in the valley area, to275m above sea level on the major north-south ridge which crosses the central part of the city. Ibadan had been the centre of administration of the old Western Region since the days of the British Colonial rule and parts of the city’s ancient protective walls still stand to this day. The principal inhabitants of the city are Yoruba people.

Ibadan has a tropical wet and dry climate (Koppen climate classification) with a lengthy wet season and relatively constant temperature throughout the course of the year. Ibadan’s wet season runs from March to October, August sees somewhat of a lull in precipitation. This will nearly divide the wet season into two (2) different wet seasons. Like a good portion of West Africa, Ibadan experiences the harmattan between the months of November and February (BBC Weather 2010). With its strategic location on the railway line connecting Lagos to Kano, the city is a major trade centre for trade in cassava, cocoa, cotton, timber, rubber and palm oil. The main industries in the city area include the processing of agricultural products, tobacco processing and cigarette, flour milling, leather making and furniture making (Lloyd et.al. 1967). The Oluyole Industrial Estate Layout lies in the heart of Ibadan and is the second most industrialized region of the city after Lagos-Ibadan expressway region in this region, various industries especially food processing and other light manufacturing industries are located.

DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF AN ACADEMIC INFORMATION SYSTEM USING RELATIONAL DATABASE

DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF AN ACADEMIC INFORMATION SYSTEM USING RELATIONAL DATABASE

(A CASE STUDY OF FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NASARAWA)

ABSTRACT

In our today activities, most people have some kind of “database” collections of CDs, students’ academic entries, a phonebook of phone numbers and name entries, vehicles parts, records to be processed by a program. With a bit more precision, the term database means a logically coherent collection of related data with inherent meaning, built for a certain application and representing a “mini-word”. A database management system (DBMS) is the software that allows database to be defined, constructed, and manipulated. Developing HTTP and RDBMS information service for Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa was the core of this project work. The integration which implemented, project the strength of the institution, provided most level of functionality and reduced the hitherto duplication of data so often the case with student particulars and the resultant stressful situation which the academic staff face in record manipulation. In considering the design of a web driven relational database management system; it is obvious that RDBMS succeed to a very large extent which depends on the level of data structure while structure itself depends on the level of reliability, which can be achieved through the kind of tables and web interface to be rendered, and the requirements needed. It is my convictions that a closer look at this project work give insight and vital information to any interested person who wish to know the requirement for developing a HTTP and a relational database management system server to effectively implement an academic information system. The design has demonstrated its HTML web pages integration via ASP.NET programming by demystifying and defining what it takes to implement an Internet information service, HTTP server, a MsSQL relational database management system and a ASP.NET web pages.

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

There is an outgrowing need for electronic accessories in a world where there is great necessity for speed, efficiency and perfection of work. Information factors efficiency, access to electronic device and relevant information is usually considered in the setting up of a relational database for a local network intranet. The internet has revolutionized the computer and communications world like nothing before. The invention of the telegraph, telephone radio and computer, set the stage for unprecedented integration of capabilities. The intranet is at once a location-based broadcasting capability, a mechanism for information disseminating and a medium for collaboration and interaction between individuals and their computers without regard for extensive location.

Presently, the internet represents one of the most successful examples of the benefits of sustained investment and commitment to research and development of information infrastructure. Starting with the early research in pocket switching, the government, industry and academic have been partners in evolving and developing this existing new technology. Terms like “http:www.yahoo.com” and “Uktehamum Edu” trip off the lounge of the random person on the street.

The aim of this project is to give an introduction to database and its integration with HTTP server. Before the specifics and theoretical, lets focus on some of the more generic aspects of this study.

1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Information handling has gone beyond papers and is now at the discretion of the PC. Thus, this project is a conceivable effort to ameliorate the pressing need for a more web centric environment. Although its primary focus is not on web site design, yet it is inevitable. Since the emergence of the internet and its accompanying protocols, web use has intensified and so developing web applications is a promising way of reaching greater audience. Web use is not limited to the internet, but to virtually any application that can interface and communicate via web protocols. Intranet with the proposed design, staff, students and any authorized person can get all the available information from the polytechnic intranet integrated database. They can get their syllabus, academic calendars and results, register course, to mention just a few.

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Invariably, the problem that gave rise to this system study is from the continuous use of manual methods of dispensing academic details in the institution. The core is information management. As they say if you are not informed, you are deformed and he who is deformed cannot perform”. It would not be an exaggerated statement if I say that graduates from Nigerian institutions are deformed because they are not being well informed due to inadequate information acquisition facilities. It can be seen that information is not only important in this age but also the method of accessibility. No wonder it is termed as power, without it there is no headway. According to the U.S. Gen. Collins Powell (1995) “Lack of information breeds analysis paralysis” without adequate information on any subject matter, it would be difficult to handle. However, the enatic nature of power supply, especially in third world countries has tremendously affected online information systems and remote access to queries, information down time and data corruption is inevitable.

In Federal Polytechnic, Nasarawa the method of information processing and sharing is done manually and therefore slows down the speed at which information is stored, processed and shared. To eradicate this to its optimum a robust database and web server should be implemented where the information no longer have to reside in man’s brain or on his desk but on the network and can be accessed by anyone who is privileged.

1.4 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The new system will bring about efficient and effective academic information system. The concise documentation of students and staff details will tremendously improve its timely decision support.

The project would also go a long way in fostering good perception of the information age in our various institutions and individual organization thereby breaking the ugly bone of continuous use of manual and archaic systems. It fosters on the in depth principles, rules and protocols of coding, scripting and hosting of database driven web pages. It will also help in making the processing of information as well as on the sport feedback faster and provide spring board for our young database developer. It also stirs and gives focus to our institutions of higher learning on the facilities obtained in the use of modern system of communication.

In order to produce a more classified knowledge of the subject matter, the researcher intends to describe the tools required to design and implement a functional Internet information service server, HTTP web server and a MsSQL relational database server for the institution through HTML encoded ASP.NET web interface. The objective of developing the system and procedure for the polytechnic is to ensure that end users are provided with requisite tolls and data that are cost effective and easily accessible.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

These research works critically explores the possible ways of demystifying the mystery behind database and related technologies, web hosting services, protocols and of course design, and encourage young programmers to joint the race without feeling interns to their counterparts in the development parts of the world.

Without shifting this focus to web site design, we might still be in darkness for the next twenty years and by then a new inventions might be made which can sentence us unto another one thousand years of Dark Age. The study will go a long way to cutting down on time wastage, inefficient use of statistical data, manual errors and duplication of efforts by both staff and academic personnel. It will also enhance efficient query and enquiring ensure security of records and assist the polytechnic in copying with the daily work load.

SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

Data not withstanding of its size cannot be too large to process. However, a guided approach is adopted to stay within limits for easy comprehension. To this end, the study will only focus on the students together with its accompanying web interface, students’ registration details and academic results.

In its most common form, the wide application of computers in accessing remote files paved way for adopting of more superior ways of making information available to the millions of users. And it also exposes the researcher to the core about the intricacies of database programming for web, an all round technology.

Although economic constraints did not stop this project room completion, yet adequate funds would have aided the provision of industrial standard hardware and software. The limitations encountered in this case are mainly based on the fact that the institution, Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa does not have the necessary software and extended network of computers, that is, it lack the projected operational hardware. Nevertheless, the researcher simulated typical sceneries. Now, the last and not the least, the time to develop, test and implement the complete scenario was without unbearable sleepless night and frustration from public power supply.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

API A term used to denote Application Programming Interface. An interface that is defined in terms of a set of functions and procedures, and enables a program to gain access to facilities within an application.

BYTE It is a fixed number of bits that can be treated as a unit by the computer hardware. It is a unit of storage capable of holding a single character equal to 8 bits, large amount of memory are referred in terms of kilobytes (1,024 bytes), megabytes (1,048,576 bytes), and gigabytes (1,073,741,824 bytes).

BANDWIDTH The amount of data or signal that can be transmitted in a transmission medium or media in a given time. It is measured in bits per second (bps) for digital devices and Hertz (HZ) for analog devices.

COUNTER Keeps track of how many times a web page is visited.

DOWNLOAD TIME The time it takes foe a web page to be completely visible on the computer screen.

FILE SIZE How large the file containing the data is usually measured in kilobytes or megabytes. File size is used when referring to pages, HTML documents and any other type of file.

FRAMES Formatting a page so that more than one HTML document is visible on the screen at the same time.

HOME PAGE The main and first page of a website, containing introductory information about the facility that has been accessed, together with links to the actual details of services or information.

HTML An abbreviation for Hypertext Mark-Up Language. A form of SGML (standard generalized mark up language) intended for use on the World Wide Web. It is used to create documents for the World Wide Web.

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IMPACT OF HOUSING COOPERATIVE SOCIETY ON HOUSING DELIVERY IN NIGERIA

IMPACT OF HOUSING COOPERATIVE SOCIETY ON HOUSING DELIVERY IN NIGERIA

(A CASE STUDY OF KEFFI, NASARAWA STATE)

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Housing is essential for human existence and its procurement requires huge capital, its provision is based on the availability of finance. Housing goes beyond the mere assemblage of bricks and mortar. It encompasses the totality of the environment and infrastructure which provides human comfort, enhance people’s health and productivity as well as enable them to sustain their psycho-social or psycho-pathological balance (Ayeniyo 2011). The housing delivery system in Nigeria is a combination of interrelated processed. As such, housing problems are multifarious and requires multidimensional solutions. Nigerians diverse housing problems revolve around over-crowding and slum housing (Danmola 2007).

However, for many Nigerians, the desirability of owning or living in decent homes is as strong as the reality of its elusiveness. Inability to afford this prime asset is largely a root cause of the deficient housing situation in Nigeria. Government overtime has intervened in the housing sector by increasing housing stock through the construction of housing estates and through its mortgage institutions, facilitated the disbursement of housing loans. It is now a well-recognised fact that Governments in most, if not all developing countries of the world and Nigeria in particular have not been, nor will they likely be able to adequately provide direct housing to all that are in need of shelter. Whereas decent housing has been universally accepted as one of the basic needs of individuals, the family and the environment (Adeboyejo, 2005). It should be noted that, housing is a reflection of the cultural, social, aesthetic and economic values of a society as it is the best physical and historical evidence of civilisation in a country.

One of the solutions being explored by the low and middle income groups is the co-operative housing, through the Co-operative Societies. Co-operative housing according to Co-operative Housing Federation (CHF)-International (2004) is an alternative housing approach that combines the system of co-operative practices and methods with the principles and processes of housing development to provide housing for members. It is a medium supported by government at all levels and commended by the United Nations. In a report by the UN-Habitat (2002), the United Nations’ Secretary-General summarized the significance of the Co-operative sector to the economy generally as follows: “Co-operative Societies support social cohesion and stability and give life to the concepts of corporate responsibility and citizenship. They provide essential services, ranging from housing to health care that strengthen community development”. Ironically, the idea of housing delivery through co-operative societies is not new (Wahab, 1998), what is new however, is that the model has been repackaged and re-invigorated in recent times in many countries by incorporating various methods and techniques to improve access to housing and thus serve the common interest of realising different objectives of the low and middle income groups; who may not necessarily belong to the same community, ethnic group, religion or linguistic background. This vehicle of housing delivery according to Danmole (2004), Daramola (2006) and Gezzard (2007) has been applied in different countries such as Italy, United Kingdom, Zambia, Sweden, Philippines, Denmark, Norway, Canada and South Africa with significant success.

The activities of co-operative societies towards economic and financial empowerment of members have been a subject of investigation by scholars. In the area of housing delivery however, studies on co-operative societies’ intervention in housing provision have been grossly limited especially in Nigeria while statements about their success have either been journalistic, superfluous and empirically unsubstantiated. For instance, Diacon (1994), Daramola (2006), Gbadeyan (2011) and Adedeji and Olotuah (2012) among others averred that the involvement of co-operative societies in housing provision has been successful. Gbadeyan (2011) explained that Co-operative Societies have been playing significant role in the delivery and provision of housing services in urban centres in Nigeria. On the other hand, Ndubueze (2009) expressed contrary opinion and stated that Co-operative Societies are yet to make any significant impact on the Nigeria housing sector development. Neither of these contradicting opinion provided empirical evidences to buttress their claims and it becomes important to undertake decisive investigation to determine the success of the option among the users. Thus this research seek to examine the impact of housing cooperative society on housing delivery in Nigeria.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The housing problem in Nigeria is more pronounced in the urban areas, which have been growing in the member of housing units available for occupation. Low and middle-income earners constituting over 95% of urban work force which were the most affected. With the high rate of urbanisation which is largely as a result of the rural-urban migration into the cities, it is assumed that the higher the population and rate of urbanisation in a city, the higher the level of housing needs of its inhabitants. There is no doubt that housing shortage and its associated problems are due to the influx of people into the cities. Several attempts have been made by government and private organization to enhance the delivery of housing unit in Nigerian urban centers but the result is far below the desired outcome. Other ways to be explored toward solving this menace of housing shortage is the housing cooperative society. The role of housing co-operatives is highly significant in housing delivery which established ways of using the co-operative societies to increase the number of residential houses for low and middle income dwellers. This study seeks to explore the potential of cooperative housing as a model that will help to address the housing challenges in Nigeria.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The aim of this project is to examine the impact of housing cooperative society on housing delivery in Nigeria with the case study of Keffi, Nasarawa State.

The specific objectives of the study are as follows:

To identify the socio-economic characteristics of the housing cooperative society in the study area;
To assess the uses of funds of co-operative societies;
To determine to what extent housing co-operative society have benefited members in financing their housing development
To examine the impact of housing cooperative society on housing delivery
To identify the problems militating against the effectiveness of co-operative societies;

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

What are the socio-economic characteristics of the housing cooperative society in the study area?
How is fund of housing cooperative society used?
To what extent does housing co-operative society benefited members in financing their housing development?
What are the impact of housing cooperative society on housing delivery?
What are the problems militating against the effectiveness of co-operative societies?

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

It is becoming very apparent that people still find it difficult or almost impossible to raise capital for respective housing development. This analysis would have at the end made a critical analysis of the various methods of raising capital for housing development with particular reference to housing co-operative society with the main intention of highlighting the prospect and trends of housing co-operative societies in Nigeria as it affect capital formation for housing delivery. It is hoped that the result or findings from this study will contribute to knowledge in the area of capital formation for housing development as well as a contribution to policy framework with respect to housing cooperative society in Nigeria.

1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The scope of this study of this study is limited to the impact of housing cooperative society on housing delivery in Nigeria. The study will be limited to Keffi, Nasarawa state, therefore data will be gathered from respondents who reside in Keffi town.

Limitation

Its major limitation was the problem of getting information from the institution under study. There is always the fear of giving out information to the public as such, vital information needed was not readily available.

Time equally would not be left out; getting permission to leave school and the issue of finance cannot be ignored as much was spent in procuring materials. However, with fact and judicial use of the limited resources, reasonable analyses have been carried out in this research work.

1.7 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

Housing: Housing refers to houses or buildings collectively; accommodation of people; planning or provision of accommodation by an authority; and related meanings. The social issue is of ensuring that members of society have a home in which to live, whether this is a house, or some other kind of dwelling, lodging, or shelter.

Finance: Merriam Webster define finance as money or other liquid resources of a government, business, group, or individual.

Cooperatives: Cooperatives are defined as “an autonomous association of persons who unite voluntarily to meet their common economic and social needs and aspiration through a jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise (IC1A, 1995)

Low Income Group: Low income group is defined as al wage earners and a self employed people whose annual income is five thousand naria (5, 000.00) or below as at 1988 or whose arrival income is 20% or below of the maximum annual income of the highest salary grade level within the civil service structure, which ever is high.

Middle Income Group: Middle-income group is also hereby defined as workers whose annuals income is above 20% and below 50% of the maximum annual income of the highest salary grade level.

Housing co-operative: The definition of housing co-operative was agreed to be “a formal association of members physical, social and economic living condition, utilizing self – help principles.

PROPERTY: This is the embodiment of tangible ownership right or bundles of right in real estate. It could also be described as a concept of right which can be held separately (Babatunde, 2003)

RENTAL VALUE: This is the worth or value of property in an open market. It is also the value arising out of the lease or renting out of a property on a periodic basis usually yearly.

RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY: it is a building that is used or suitable for dwelling purpose. They are dwelling house such as bungalows, duplex, detached houses, semi-detached houses, etc. (LBTT 4010)

1.8 AREA OF THE STUDY

Keffi Local Government Area is largely an urban Local Government Area and Keffi town is one of the oldest towns in Nasarawa state that enjoy the eminent position of being a foremost centre of history. Metropolitan Keffi currently has ten political wards namely – Tudun Kofa, Gangaren Tudu, Yara, Goriya, Liman Abaji, Ungwar Rimi, Iya I, Iya II, SabonGari and Jigwada, these serve as spatial reference points for analysis. In the high density areas, there are usually large cluster of old houses with high concentration of households and indecent surroundings. The situation becomes even worse with the ever-increasing migration of low or no income earners from the surrounding rural neighborhoods into the town. This has resulted among other things, in the increase of petty businesses, which competes for accommodation with households in the same buildings and therefore, has aggravated the problems of shorter dwelling units.

Similarly, houses within the high residential areas reflect the images of their inhabitants, particularly in the complete separation of women, and in directing day time activities toward an inner court. The basic emotional needs of utmost to the residents, the need for privacy, and family entertainments. These are emotionally connected, and were taken into consideration to a great extent in terms of the physical layout of the houses. The physical and mental health as well as the social well-being of the inhabitants of low and medium density areas are therefore, by virtue of their relative cleaner, more refined and quieter living environment, generally more conducive to a better quality of life, than those of their fellow citizens residing in the high density areas. Abubakar (2000) observed that many potentially harmful materials such as solvent and pesticide containers, medical waste and asbestos debris, even though prohibited are already present in the collected waste in Keffi. Keffi is located between Latitude 8°50’55” N and 7°52’25” E or 8.84861 and 7.87361 (in decimal degrees).

Transportation network in urban Keffi is fair being limited to vehicles and motor cycles. Roads in Keffi was categorized into the following hierarchy: Arterial and collector roads that pass through the town from Akwanga (with only one lane) to Abuja (with two lanes each) and also foot/cycle paths, they are the intercity roadways linking the city to neighboring states, and they also form the boundaries of the phases of the city. They also receive traffic from local streets and deliver to the access roads which are meant to serve the residential areas; Local streets have single two lane carriageways with foot/cycle paths,; and Access roads with single two lane carriageways and cycle paths. The mass-Transit System for moving large numbers of people into Keffi center and out again is mainly the buss (vehicle) system with the main transportation terminal being motor parks and the Keffi central market, these are the locations where buses (vehicles) originate and terminate.

The main source of water supply to Keffi is the River Mada Water Works at Gudi. It has a maximum capacity of supplying water to a population equivalent of 350,000 inhabitants which means that it is not enough to meet the ultimate city requirements. The transportation of water to Keffi is by gravity through a series of water tanks around the periphery of the city. This is a unique system because the clear water reservoir of the treatment plant is elevated enough to facilitate the gravitational flow right to the city. However, there are areas in Keffi where the water pressure is too low due to head losses and for those areas booster stations would be necessary. Municipal solid waste in Keffi is composed of paper, plastics, food, yard wastes, glass, metals, and wood among others.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Geology and Relief

The landscape of Keffi form part of the low plains of the Benue trough. This plain is believed to be tectonic in origin and is lying in depression. The Maloney Hill in Keffi is of historical significance. Keffi is drained by numerous fast-flowing streams that take their sources from Jama’a catchment in Kaduna State and flow into the River Antau.

Keffi is well-endowed with both renewable and non-renewable natural resources. The major non-renewable resources include the constructional materials such as gravel, sand, clay and earth. Sand is obtained both on land and from river beds. The major renewable natural resources include water resources, a wide variety of economically important timber species, pole-wood, fuel-wood; edible vegetables, fruits, nuts and seeds; medicinal plants, palm wine and other palm products; fibers; and tannin.

2. Climate of the Study Area

a) Pattern of Mean Rainfall in Keffi

Keffi is characterized by a dry season of seven months or more, usually between October/November and April/May. Data from the National Meteorological Department, Lafia, 2015 suggest that the mean annual rainfall distribution in Keffi ranges from 1000mm to 1200mm. The minimum rainfall received during the dry season ranges from less than 50mm to 100mm.

Similarly, the data further shows that, the mean onset date of rains in the area is currently before 10^th of April (for early onset), the late rains generally come before 20^th April. On the average, rains terminate in October, but sometimes may extend beyond November 15^th. However, the mean cessation dates is generally between 17^th and 27^th October. The mean length of rainy season (LRS) ranges from more than 150 days to less than 180 days.

b) Sunshine

The duration of sunshine per day, combined with solar radiation intensity are two important parameters that determine the drying power of the ambient air. Keffi enjoys high sunshine hours of 8-9 hours per day. Hence daytime lengths are on the average about 8.5 hours for most of the dry season; this may mean increase in evaporation. The high evaporative power of between 16 and 20 millimeter of water in November also suggest a very high drying power. Extreme dryness is usually associated with values higher than 20 ml when relative humidity (RH) is 40% or below. The mean monthly temperature ranges from 25.7⁰ in August to 30.9⁰ in March.

c) Effective Temperature Factor

The rate of all developmental processes is directly regulated by temperature, being accelerated when temperatures are raised and retarded when they are lowered.

SOCIOECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS

Socio-economic Activities

Human activities in Keffi includes: primary – fishing and farming, quarrying, and river sand mining have become major production activities in Keffi; secondary – manufacturing, and various traditional industrial activities (weaving, carving, dyeing, smiting and so on) found in the informal sector of the economy; and tertiary – commerce, administration, banking and finance, information, transportation and local traditional marketing through the traditional rural periodic markets and the urban markets. There has been a quite modest improvement in the construction of new roads within Keffi by the present administration under Governor Umaru Tanko Almakura. Generally, inadequate transport system has been a major constraint on social and economic development in Keffi.

Demographic Characteristics

Studies by the Abubakar (2006), observed that population growth in Keffi is influenced by declining mortality and stable high fertility level as well as influx of people because of its proximity to FCT Abuja. This increase had been further influenced by factors such as improved environmental sanitation, raising income level, peace and political order. Similarly, decline in mortality rate, increase in fertility had (still is) consistent in Keffi.

Inter-marriage, early marriage has been important factors in high fertility in the Keffi. Apart from natural population increase, Keffi also experiences a relatively high level of immigration as a result of movement of the seat of Federal Government from Lagos to Abuja. Until recently migration in Keffi followed the common developing country pattern of young people leaving their rural villages to seek work in larger urban centers. Thus Keffi has an average population growth rate of about 3% which is higher than the national average of about 2.5 per cent (NPC, 2015). Keffi is home to Nasarawa State University Keffi, School of Health Technology, and a large number of primary and secondary schools among which is Government College Keffi.

PREVALENCE OF HEPATITIS B AND C COINFECTION VIRUS AMONG PREGNANT WOMEN

PREVALENCE OF HEPATITIS B AND C COINFECTION VIRUS AMONG PREGNANT WOMEN

A CASE STUDY OF MODEL HOSPITAL NASARAWA

ABSTRACT

The study investigated the prevalence of hepatitis B and C coinfection virus among pregnant women, a case study of General Hospital Nasarawa with the specific objective to determine the prevalence of Hepatitis B and C co-infection among pregnant women and to determine the prevalence of HBV and HCV co-infection in relation to some socio-demographic and risk factors, namely, sex, age, marital status and occupation. The population of the study were pregnant women attending antenatal in general hospitalNasarawa. The results of this study showed that the prevalence of HBsAg and HCsAg among pregnant women attending antenatal in general hospital was 11% which according to the WHO classification for Hepatitis B and C endemicity, Nasarawa is a hyper-endemic area for hepatitis B and C virus infection. This prevalence is identical to the study at the Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital Zaria (ABUTH), Nigeria 11% respectively (Eke et al., 2011). Finally, it is recommended that pregnant woman should be mandatorily and routinely screened for hepatitis B and C virus infection as part of antenatal care services in their booking; also infants and new borns must be systematically immunized against hepatitis B and C virus infection. Public awareness, complete immunization against viral hepatitis, better sanitation facilities, safe drinking water, increased availability of antenatal care for early detection and well equipped hospitals for intensive care will go long way in the reduction of viral hepatitis in pregnancy and also its associated maternal and per-natal mortality and morbidity.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Hepatitis B and C are one of the major and common infectious diseases of the liver worldwide caused by a small enveloped DNA virus, the hepatitis B and C virus (HBV and HCV). Nigeria is classified among the group of countries endemic for HBV and HCV infection ((Sirisenaet al, 2002). Currently about 18 million Nigerians are infected. Many of these people may not be aware of the infection and hence fail to seek appropriate medical attention therefore progressing to chronic liver disease, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Similarly when pregnant women are involved, they constitute a serious health risk not only to their unborn child but also the society at large (Jomboet al, 2005).

Hepatitis B is an infectious illness of the liver caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV) that affects apes, including humans (Chang, 2007; Barker et al.,1996). The virus was first discovered as “Australia antigen”, later named hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), in patient blood. Hepatitis Be antigen (HBeAg) was identified several years later as a marker for patients at high risk for transmission of the disease (Tong et al, 2005). The acute illness causes liver inflammation, vomiting, jaundice, and rarely, death. Chronic hepatitis B may eventually cause cirrhosis and liver cancer – a disease with poor response to all but a few current therapies (Tong et al, 2005).

The virus is transmitted by exposure to infectious blood or body fluids such as semen and vaginal fluids, while viral DNA has been detected in the saliva, tears, and urine of chronic carriers. Prenatal infection is a major route of infection in areas of the world where the disease is common (Chang, 2007). Other risk factors for developing HBV infection include working in a healthcare setting, transfusions, dialysis, sharing razors or toothbrushes with an infected person, travel in countries where it is common, and living in an institution. Tattooing and acupuncture led to a significant number of cases in the 1980s; however, this has become less common with improved sterility. The hepatitis B viruses cannot be spread by holding hands, sharing eating utensils or drinking glasses, kissing, hugging, coughing, sneezing, or breastfeeding(Chang, 2007).

Hepatitis B and C virus are hepadnavirus-hepa from hepatotropic (attracted to the liver) and DNA because it is a DNA virus – and it has a circular genome of partially double-stranded DNA. The viruses replicate through an RNA intermediate form by reverse transcription, which in practice relates them to retroviruses. Although replication takes place in the liver, the virus spreads to the blood where viral proteins and antibodies against them are found in infected people. The hepatitis B virus is 50 to 100 times more infectious than HIV (Hiuet al., 2005)

The prevalence of HBV and HCV in a population is related to risk factors associated with the transmission, such as blood transfusion and blood products, dental and surgical procedures, use of tattoos, accidents with biological material, use of injectable substances, besides the sexual and vertical routes (Bruggmann, et al., 2014).

Maternal-fetal transmission is of great importance in the epidemiology of viral hepatitis. In children of HBV infected mothers, vertical transmission carries a risk of progression to chronicity in 70%–90% of the cases(14,15). The present study had as objectives: to determine the seroprevalence of hepatitis B and C in the prenatal patients of the Hospital HospitalUniversitárioAntônio Pedro, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro; to compare the data found with the regional data and those described in the specific literature and to provide demographic, clinical and epidemiological data to the literature that may be used for the formulation of policies in the area (Andrade et al., 2015).

There are few studies in national and international literature addressing the prevalence of the coinfection of hepatitis B and C in pregnant women. As this is still a worldwide worrying and the early detection in prenatal care can avoid a series of deleterious outcomes for the pregnant woman and its child, the concern of deepening the study in this area arose with a more accurate evaluation of the epidemiological profile of pregnant women from the Nigeria and Nasarawa in particular. Thus, prenatal exams provide a great opportunity for screening and identifying these viruses in this population that could serve as a natural reservoir for future generations.

1.0 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Hepatitis B and C are life-threatening liver disease, caused by hepatitis B and C virus, and is a major public health problem, particularly in developing countries like Nigeria(Andrade et al., 2015). The prevalence of HBV and HCV in a population can be predicted by risk factors associated with the transmission of infection such as injections, blood products transfusion, surgical procedures, body tattooing, occupational injury, sexual and vertical transmission (Akbar et al., 2017) many infected individuals deny history of any of these risks so that the likely source remains unidentified in some subjects however, the prevalence varies from area to area and population to population due to variability in ethnicity and socioeconomic conditions (Haider et al., 2018). Viral hepatitis during pregnancy is associated with high risk of maternal complications. Infections with the Hepatitis B virus (HBV) or the Hepatitis C virus (HCV) are public health problems and are highly endemic in the sub-Saharan Africa (Haider et al., 2018). HBV and HCV infections are a major cause of morbidity and mortality. The virus is transmitted through infected blood, sexually and vertically (mother to child) in the perinatal period. Perinatal transmission is the most common mode of HBV transmission worldwide (Kuru, 2016).

Although, studies have been carried out on HBV and HCV in other parts of the country, information is very scarce on the prevalence of the coinfection of HBV and HCV among pregnant women attending antenatal in General Hospital Nasarawa. As a result guidelines and other adequate information on the prevention and control strategies are lacking. This is because effective public health policy and awareness campaign for the need to know one’s hepatitis B and C status is lacking. Are people even aware of this hepatitis B and C virus? How can it be transmitted? What are the signs, symptoms and prevention and control?These questions give rise to the need to carry out this study on the prevalence of Hepatitis B and C coinfection virus among pregnant women attending General Hospital Nasarawa.

1.1 Aim and Objectives ofthe Study

1.2 Aim

The aim of this study is to investigate the prevalence of hepatitis B and C coinfection virus among pregnant women, a case study of Model Hospital Nasarawa

Objectives

To determine the prevalence of Hepatitis B and C co-infection among pregnant women

To determine the prevalence of HBV and HCV co-infection in relation to some socio-

demographic and risk factors, namely, sex, age, marital status and occupation