ENEMS MICROSYSTEMS RESEARCH SPOT: Microbiology

Showing posts with label Microbiology. Show all posts

Saturday 4 March 2023

DETERMINATION OF HEAVY METALS IN SOME SELECTED VEGETABLES IRRIGATED WITH POLLUTED WATER IN KABALA WEST AREA OF KADUNA STATE

DETERMINATION OF HEAVY METALS IN SOME SELECTED VEGETABLES IRRIGATED WITH POLLUTED WATER IN KABALA WEST AREA OF KADUNA STATE

ABSTRACT

This study was carried out to assess the levels of different heavy metals such as Lead, Cadmium and Zinc in Vegetables like cabbage, lettuce, spinach, Bitter leaf and pumpkin irrigated with polluted water in different farms in Kabala West area of Kaduna state, the concentrations of the heavy metals were determined using Atomic absorption spectrophotometric analysis, the result shows that lead (2.130-9.075 mg/kg), Cadmium (1.365-1.735 mg/kg) and Zinc (2.720-6.765 mg/kg) were detected in all the samples except for Zinc which was not detected in lettuce and cabbage. The concentration of lead (9.075 mg/kg) detected in spinach was the highest and that of cadmium (1.365 mg/kg) detected in bitter-leaf was the lowest in all the samples analyzed. The result also indicated that Lead and cadmium detected in all the samples analyzed in this project were above the permissible limit of (0.3 mg/kg) and (0.10 mg/kg) respectively with the exception of Zinc which was below the permissible limit of (100 mg/kg) set by FAO/WHO in 2001.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The consumption of vegetables as food offer rapid and least means of providing adequate vitamins, supply minerals and fibers. Vegetables that are used as food include those used in making soups or served as integral parts of the main sources of a meal. Leafy vegetables occupy a very important place in the human diet (Zurera et al., 1999), but unfortunately constitute a group of food which contributes maximally to nitrate and other anions as well as heavy metal consumption. Heavy metals deposition are associated with a wide range of sources such as small scale industries (including battery, Metal smelting and cable coating industries); vehicular emissions, and diesel generator sets. Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead and zinc are important environmental pollutant, particularly in areas where vegetables are irrigated with waste water, consumption of vegetables such as spinach, cabbage, lettuce, Bitter leaf and pumpkin by humans and animals pose serious health hazards, Although some heavy metals as Lead, Cadmium and Magnesium are important in plant nutrition, many of them do not play any significant role in the plant’s physiology. The uptake of these heavy metals especially into the human food chain is done through these leafy vegetables and they have harmful effects on health (Jarup, 2003).

Vegetables act as neutralizing agents for acidic substances formed during digestion, as human activities increases especially with the application of modern technology, pollution and contamination of human food chain has become inevitable. Heavy metals cannot be underestimated as these food stuffs are important components of human diet, they are very rich and comparatively cheaper sources of vitamins, Consumption of these items provides taste and palatability increases appetite and provides fibre for digestion and prevent constipation (Agrawal, 2011). Heavy metal contamination of food item is one of the most important aspect of food quality assurance; International and national regulation on food qualities have lowered the maximum permissible levels of toxic metals in food items due to an increased awareness of the risk these metals pose to food chain contamination.

Rapid and Unorganized industrialization and Urbanization has contributed to the elevated levels of metals in the urban environment in developing countries, Heavy metal are non bio- degradable and persistent environmental contaminants which may deposited on the surfaces and then absorbed into the tissues of the vegetables; Plants take up heavy metals by absorbing them from deposits on the parts of the plant exposed to the polluted water (Amoah, 2008) Waste water from industries of mining electroplating paints or chemical laboratories often contains high concentrations of heavy metals, These elements at concentration exceeding the physiological demand of vegetables, not only could administer toxic effects in them but also could enter food chain, get biomagnified and pose a potential threat to human health. Heavy metal contamination in agricultural soils from waste water irrigation is of serious concern due to its implications on human health.

1.1 EFFECTS OF HEAVY METALS ON HUMAN HEALTH

Small amounts of heavy metals are needed in our environment and diet and are actually necessary for good health, but large amount of any of them may cause acute or chronic toxicity (poisoning). Heavy metal toxicity can result in damaged or reduced mental and central nervous function, lower energy levels and damage to blood composition, lungs, kidneys, liver, and other vital organs. Long term exposure may result in slowly progressing physical, muscular, and neurological degenerative processes, allergies are not uncommon, and repeated long-term contact with some metals (or their compounds) may cause cancer (WHO, 2006). For some heavy metals, toxic levels can be just above the background concentrations naturally found in nature. Therefore, it is important to learn about heavy metals and take protective measures against excessive exposure. The association of symptoms indicative of acute toxicity is not difficult to recognize because they are usually severe, rapid in onset, and associated with a known ingestion or exposure. Symptoms include: cramping, nausea and vomiting; pain; sweating; headache difficulty in breathing impaired cognitive motor, and language skills, mania and convulsions symptoms of chronic exposure (impaired cognitive and language skills, learning difficulties; nervousness and emotional instability; and insomnia, nausea, lethargy, and feeling ill) are also usually recognized; however, they are much more difficult to associate with their cause(Jarup, 2003). Symptoms resulting from chronic exposure are very similar to symptoms of other health conditions and often develop slowly over mouths or even years. Sometimes, symptoms of chronic exposure subside; thinking the symptoms are related to something else people postpone seeking treatment. (Khillare et al., 2004).

1.2 BENEFITS OF HEAVY METALS

In small quantities, certain heavy metals are nutritionally essential for a healthy life. Those elements, or some form of them, fruits and vegetables and in commercially available multivitamin products (WHO, 2006), this research work focuses on vegetables because it is widely consumed in Nigeria, so it is important to know about their relationship with heavy metals. Diagnostic medical application include direct injection of gallium during radio logical procedures dosing with chromium in parent nutrition mixtures, and the use of lead as x-ray shield (Jassir, M.S., et al , 2005). Heavy metals are also common in industrial applications such as the manufacture of pesticides, batteries, alloys, electroplated metal parts, textile dyes, steel, and so forth (WHO, 2006). Many of these products are in our homes and add to the quality of life when properly used.

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this project work is to determine heavy metals in some selected vegetables in Kabala West, Kaduna, Nigeria..

Objectives

· The objective of this work is to ascertain the level of heavy metals in analyzed samples

· To determine the concentration of heavy metals in the selected vegetables

1.4 SCOPE OF WORK

The scope of this project work covers the determination of the presence of heavy metals in vegetables grown in kabala west area of Kaduna state, and also to determine the various concentrations of the heavy metals in the selected vegetables.

JUSTIFICATION

Previous projects have been carried out to ascertain different levels of heavy metals in soil and water samples, but this project specifically targets heavy metals in vegetables grown and irrigated with polluted water in Kabala area of Kaduna state.

Saturday 7 January 2023

ISOLATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF BACTERIA AND FUNGI ASSOCIATED WITH FRESH FROZEN FISH

ISOLATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF BACTERIA AND FUNGI ASSOCIATED WITH FRESH FROZEN FISH

ABSTRACT

Fish and fishery products have been documented as a major source of food borne pathogens of which bacteria and fungi play a major role. The fungal and bacterial organism contaminating apparently health and diseased (Scomber Scombrus) fish in Nasarawa, Nasarawa state was investigated. An invitro Assay was carried out to ascertain and identifies major bacterial and fungal contamination of frozen fish, which hitherto had constituted on important dieting intake of people of Nasarawa Nigeria. Fish samples collected were identified and the microbial load of the sample determined using spread plate method. Differentiation and characterization of various isolates were based on biochemical reactions and gram staining techniques. Frozen mackered fish (Scomber scombrus) was used for the study. The result revealed that staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia Coil, Salmonella Species and Shigella species are the bacteria associated with the contamination of the fish. Aspergillus, species Penicillin, species Rhizopus, species candida and mucor specie are the fungi associated with the contamination of the fish. The average number of colonies were 11, 21 and 45. The colony forming unit of O.5aiquote were 1.1 X i07, 2.1 x 106 and 4.5 x l0 isolation of fungi and Bacteria from Scomber Scombrus Meant for human consumption is alarming which can be source of fish borne infection. Attention should be paid to fish health in the community so as to conserve public health and safeguard the community health.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Fish is one of the most important source of animal proteins available in the tropics and has been widely accepted as good source of protein and other elements for maintenance of healthy body (Al-jufalli and Opera, 2006). Fish is regarded as healthier meat due to its high content of long chain polysaturated fatty acids which are associated with improving health and preventing diseases of old age (yagoub & Ahmed, 2009).

The less developed countries capture 50% of the world harvest and a large proportion of the catch are consumed internally. In Nigeria, fish constitute 40% of the animal protein intake. Fish and fish products constitute an important part in the international trade, indicating increasing consumer interest in commodity. Generally, fish are good sources of vitamin B 12 and B6. It is also a good source of fluorine and iodine which are needed for the development of strong teeth and the prevention of goitre in man (youes & Bartram 2007). However, availability of these vital nutrients depends to a large extent on the methods of storage such as salting, roasting, drying, and freezing. Iced fish of different types are of great demands by the Nigerian consumers as a relatively cheaper source of animal protein. Fish and fish products are important, not only from the nutritional point of view but also as an item of international and foreign exchange carrier for a number of countries in the world (Yagoub, 2009).

Fish is a very perishable, high-protein food that typically contains a high level of free amino acids. Microbes rnetabolise these amino acids, producing ammonia, biogenic amines such as putrescine, histamine, cadaverine, organic acids, ketones and sulfur compounds (Emborg et al., 2005; Olatsdottir et al., 2005; Dalgard et al., 2006).

Microbiological quality is of importance to public health as it directly relates to spoilage of fish and becomes the cause of food poisoning. Microbial hazards causing infections and poor health are closely related to food safety concerned with animal proteins derived from marketed food- fish and fish products, meat and meat products. This creates a burning question for all consumers with a high risk commodity with regard to pathogenic bacteria & Fungi contaminations alarming to food safety challenge (Nilla et al., 2012). Refrigeration temperatures are also relevant because they are used by most households in Nigeria for temporary storage of fish (Oramadike et al., 201 0).Frozen state condition is also important since most fishes consumed in Nigeria are imported and usually come in frozen state (Oramadike et al., 2010).The quality of fish degrades due to a complete process in which physical, chemical and microbiological forms of deteriorations are implicated.
Therefore maintenance of quality is of utmost importance in the production and trade of fish and fish products. Although only a few infectious agents in fish are able to infect humans, some exceptions exists that may result in fatalities. However, the greatest risk to human health is due to the consumption of raw or insufficiently processed fish and fish products (Yagoub and Ahmed 2009).

According to the Centre For Food Safety And Applied Nutrition in Washington (2001),most fish related food borne illness are traced to Salmonella, Staphylococciisspp, Escherichia spp, Murcor spp penicillin spp, candida spp. Rhizopus and aspergillus. (Yagoub and Ahmed 2009). Spoilage bacteria differ somewhat for freshwater aid marine fish and for temperate and tropical water fish, storage and processing conditions also affect the predominant species on iced fish under aerobic conditions (Hozbor ci’ al., 2006). Packing under carbon dioxide and low concentration of sodium chloride favors the growth lactic acid bacteria and Photobacterium phosphoreuni. Microorganisms are found mostly on the skin, gills, operculum and intestines of life and newly caught fish. Fish contamination can be linked to raw material, personnel, processing tools such as forklifts through leakage, openings in buildings and pets. Some pathogens may even become established in the processing plants from niches where they can survive for a long period of time. The quality of our fish is of major concern to the food processors, consumers and public health authorities and provisions of safe, wholesome and acceptable fish and fish products to consumers and control of microorganisms is essential to meet these objectives.

The potentials of seafood to harbor microbial athogens and causing subsequent illness is well documented for both developed and developing countries (Younes and Bartram, 2007; Wright et cii., 2004). Water related diseases continue to be one of the major health problems globally (Adebayo et al., 2012). Okonko et al., (2009), reported that both bacteria and fungi are common flora of iced fish and fish related products during packaging. Majority of iced fish are sold in the open markets. Arannilewa et at., (2005) noted that protein decreased with increasing duration of frozen storage with fresh samples not frozen having higher protein content. Disadvantages such as product dehydration, rancidity, drip loss and product bleaching have an overall effect on the quality of frozen food. In spite of some disadvantages associated with frozen storage, freezing is .accepted as the effective way of preserving fish (Arannilewa e tal.,2005). The effect of physical conditions and chemical agents on the growth of microorganisms in fish has been investigated and well documented. In recent time, modern biotechnology have introduced new techniques that detect early fish contamination, improve taste, modify the quality of the fish, prolong the shelf life and also impact disease resistance to the fish Oramadike et a!., 2010).

Majority of the iced fish marketed in Nasarawa state are sold in open markets and so are exposed to dust and contaminated air, encouraging the growth of microorganisms which might facilitate increased transmission and prevalence of pathogens. Moreover poor personal hygiene, such as neglecting to wash hands after handling contaminated materials encourage contamination of iced fish with pathogenic organisms. This study is to assess the Microbial Load of fish sold at Nasarawa market in Nasarawa state. Also to isolate/identify the bacteria & fungi responsible for the contamination of frozen fish retailed at Nasarawa market

Bacteria
Bacteria are group of micro organism all of which lack a distinct nuclear membrane (hence are considered more primitive than animal and plant cells) and most of which have a cell wall of unique composition. Most bacteria are unicellular, the cells may be spherical (cocci) rod-shaped (bacillus) spiral (spirillum) comma-shaped (vibrio) or cork screw shaped (Geirocheate). Generally they range in size between 0.5 and 5nlm.
Fungi
Fungi can be single celled or very complex multicellular organisms. They are found in just about any habitat but most live on the land mainly in soil or plant material rather than in sea or fresh water. A very small number of fungi cause disease in animals

1.1 Statement of Problem

Fish is mostly spoiled by bacteria and fungi microbiological quality is of importance to public health as it directly relates to spoilage of fish and becomes the cause of food poisoning. Microbial hazard causing infection and poor health are closely related to food safety concerned with animal protein delivered from marketed fish and fish product meat and meat product. This creates a burning question for all consumers with a high risk commodity with regards to pathogenic bacteria continuous alarming to food safety challenge. The isolation and characterization of these spoilage organism will go a long way to profer solution no. mater how little to this problem.

1.2 Justification
The study will help in the acquisition of the knowledge of fungi and bacteria associated or involved with the spoilage of fish, factors that enhance spoilage of fish and the risk involved in the consumption of spoiled fish.

1.3 Scope of The Study
The project work is limited to the isolation and characterization of bacteria and fungi associated with fresh fish sold around Nasarawa Local Government. This will help in creasing the health awareness of the public on the damages of eating uncooked or under cooked fish. The project work would have covered the whole of Nasarawa State but it was not possible due to financial and time constraint

1.4 Aim of The Study
To isolate and identify micro-organism associated with contamination of frozen fresh fish

1.5 Objective of The Study
The objective of the study are:

i. To determine the microbial Load of the Fish
ii. To identify the type of bacteria and fungi associated with frozen fish commonly consumed by people in this locality

Thursday 5 January 2023

THE CURATIVE ANTIPLASMODIAL ACTIVITY OF HYDROALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF KHAYA GRANDIFOLIA IN MICE

THE CURATIVE ANTIPLASMODIAL ACTIVITY OF HYDROALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF KHAYA GRANDIFOLIA IN MICE

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Medicinal plants are of great importance to the health of individuals and the society. The medicinal value of these plants lies in some chemical substances that produce a definite physiological action on the human body (Edeoga and Gomina, 2000).Plants as sources of remedy for many diseases date back to the early century (Karouet al., 2005). In Africa, particularly West Africa, new drugs are often beyond the reach of the poor. Hence, upto 80% o the population use medicinal plants as remedy against infections and diseases (Kirby, 1996; Hostettmann and Maston, 2002).

Treatment offered by traditional healers is primary health care that has sustained the Nigerian community before and after colonization and the medicinal plants used by African traditional healers are selected not on the basis of their chemical constituent, but on their perceived ability to restored patients disease condition to normal.

The use of plants as curative antiplasmodial or antibacterial agents is gradually attracting attention probably due to the high cost, unavailability and resistance of the drugs. Medicinal plants contain numerous biologically active compounds such as nutrients and phytochemicals which have physiological actions on the human body (Edeoga et al., 2005; Olowokudejo et al., 2008). The inherent active ingredients are used to cure disease or relieve pain (Okigbo et al., 2008).

Khayagrandifoliola family Meliaceae (also called African mahogany, Benin Mahogany, Large-leaved Mahogany, or Senegal Mahogany) is a species of plant in the Meliaceae family. It is found in Benin, The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Guinea, Nigeria, Sudan, Togo and Uganda.

The aqueous extract of K. grandifoliola is used in traditional certain in Nigeria as remedy against convulsion, cough, stomach ache, fever, threatened abortion, rheumatism, dermatomycosis and malaria fever in Nigeria (Odugbemi et al., 2007; Olowokudejo et al., 2008).The anti malarial activity of the stem bark was also reported (Agbedahunsi et al., 1998). The stem bark was also found to possess anti-ulcer property (Njifutie and Njikam,2006), anti anaemic (Adeyemi and Gbilade, 2006), hypoglycaemic, hypoproteinaemic and hypocholesterolaemic effects (Bumahet al., 2005). Some of the chemical constituents reported include limonoids (Zhang et al., 2008). This present study is necessitate to ascertain the curative antiplasmodial activity of hydroalcoholic extract of kharagrandifolia in mice.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS

A major problem associated with the chemotherapy of malaria is drug resistance. Plasmodium parasites soon develop resistance to new drugs, once released for widespread use. This leads to the need for exploiting the curative antiplasmodial activity of hydroalcoholic extract of Khaya grandifolia. However, currently available combination therapy for treatment of Malaria and the like is expensive beyond what the average African rural dweller can afford10. One reason for this is the cost of importing either finished drug products or raw materials from outside the continent. Studies have shown that increasing access to life saving artemisinine based combination therapy in endemic areas is critical in the control and reduction of malaria transmission11 . The present study shows evaluation of antimalarial activity of locally grown Artemisia annua in Langtang South area of Plateau State against Plasmodium berghei and the phytochemical screening of the leaf extract in order to discover the efficacy, phytochemical content of the herbal based medicine.

1.3 Aims and Objectives Of The Study

Aim

The Aim of this study is to determine the curative antiplasmodial activity of hydroalcoholic extract of Khaya grandifolia

Objective

To identify the phytochemical characteristics of the khayagrandifolia extract
Evaluate the effect of crude extract and solvent fractions on the mice
Determine the curative effect of crude extract
To determine the prophylactic effect of the Khayagrandifolia extract

1.4 justification of the study

In Africa and Nigeria in particular Khayagrandifolia is one of the traditional medicinal plants commonly used for the treatment of a number of illnesses, the leave juice is used to treat fever and headache, treatment of paralysis, michi, and external wounds, while the root is used for abdominal pain and ascariasis. Its flowers have been combined with other herbals for topical treatment of alopecia, wounds, and eczema etc, but this has not been proved scientifically. Nevertheless, the effectiveness, consistency, and efficacy of Khayagrandifoliafor the curative antiplasmodial activity have not been scientifically proven. To promote its traditional use in the treatment of various sickness, scientific evaluation of its curative antiplasmodial activity in mice model is thus justified.

THE SUPPRESSIVE ANTIMALARIAL EFFECT OF KHAYA GRADIFOLIA STEM-BACK IN MICE

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Antimalarial drug resistance is one of the greatest challenges of malaria therapy. Resistance accounts for recrudescence and severity of infections in some parts of the world (Peters, 1982). Many commonly used antimalarial drugs are chemically related such that development of resistance to one drug can result in resistance to others. For example, cross resistance between the 4-aminoquinolines, chloroquine and amodiaquine, has been reported (Bloland, 2001) as a result of ineffectiveness of commonly used antimalarial drugs, the use of alternative medicine either exclusively or along with conventional medicines has becomes common feature. This situation is prevalent in developing tropical countries where modern medicines are not affordable to a majority of the rural populations (Kremsner and Kritna, 2004).

Up to 80% of African population use traditional medicine especially plant remedies in the management of diseases including malaria (WHO, 2002). Often, antimalarial herbal therapies are used concurrently, prior or after the use of conventional antimalarial drugs in West Africa. Very few reports are available on the interaction of herbal anti-malarial products with synthetic drugs. One of such reports indicates that some local African populations use herbal products in combination with chloroquine for enhancement of activity (Rasoanaivo et al. 1998). Either of pharmacodynamic or pharmacokinetic interactions can result in synergism, additivity or antagonism. It is therefore most desirable to evaluate the interaction between common herbs used in the management of malaria and some of the conventional antimalarial drugs. More so, the use of combination of two or more drugs as a way of delaying or overcoming development of drug resistance is topical in malarial chemotherapy research (WHO, 2000). Combination of Artemisinin derivatives with other antimalarial drugs has become a standard practice in malaria chemotherapy.

Aqueous decoction of K. grandifoliola (Benin Mahogany or timber) is commonly used by traditional medical practitioners in West Africa in the management of malaria. This plant has been scientifically evaluated for its anti-malarial activity (Makinde et al 1989; Agbedahunsi et al, 1998), anti-inflammatory and toxic effects (Agbedahunsi et al, 2004), effects on red blood cells and bone mineral content in rats (Bumah et al, 2005a) and on some biochemical parameters in rats (Bumah et al, 2005b). A bicyclo (3, 3, 1) nonane derivative of phragmaline named grandifolioline, has been isolated from the anti-malarial fraction of this plant by Agbedahunsi et al. (1998). There is need to ascertain the suppressive antimalarial effect of KhayaGrandifolia Stem-Bark in mice.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Malaria is a parasitic disease that affects more than 500 million people worldwide, killing between 60,000 (sixty thousand) and 2.7 million people annually, especially children and pregnant mothers (Percárioet al., 2012). It is caused by a single-celled parasite, Plasmodium. The parasite P. falciparum is usually transmitted to humans by a secondary vector, anopheles mosquitoes after a bite. Once in the body, Plasmodium has a complex life cycle and an inherent mechanism at evading the immune response. One of its key strategies is possession of high polymorphic natured proteins and the ability to undergo almost unlimited antigenetic variation by changing the antigens on the infected red blood cell surface. This inherent property results in significant challenges to vaccine design and rapid development of multi-drug resistant strains of Plasmodium. Drug resistant Plasmodium, particularly P. falciparum represents a major problem for both prophylaxis and clinical treatment of malaria infection (Phyo, 2012). There is a report of rapid spread of resistant malaria parasites to new areas and re-emergence of malaria in areas where the disease had been eradicated (McCollum, 2006). At present there are no drugs that can completely offer protection against malaria in all regions of the world.

Clinical resistance to the artemisinin and its combinations is currently being reported, suggesting that P. falciparum parasites have already developed the ability to grow in the presence of these antimalaria agents, leaving little or no alternative for malaria treatment. This strongly suggests the need for urgent and further research into new antimalarials (Noedl et al., 2008). Thus the need for this study to carry out a prophylactic antimalarial effect of ethanolic stem-bark extract of khaya grandifolia in mice.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study is to ascertain the suppressive antimalarial effect of Khaya grandifolia stem-bark in mice.

1.4 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF STUDY ARE

The specific objectives of this study are to:

To identify the antimalarial effect of Khaya grandifolia stem-bark in mice
To isolate active compounds from active fraction(s) of Khaya grandifolia
To determine the antimalarial effect of Khaya grandifolia in mice

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

Malaria is a major health problem in Nigeria and Africa at large, it is widely diagnosed infectious disease in the country. It is the single most important cause of death especially among children under the age of 5 (23%); it is responsible for one out of ten deaths in pregnant women and causes the Federal Government of Nigeria over one billion Naira annually in treating malaria (Odugbemi, 2007). The disease is responsible for up to 60% of daily outpatient department (OPD) consultations in health facilities (FMOH, 2008). Chloroquine failure range of 50 – 95% has been reported for some parts of Nigeria (Faladeet al., 2005; FMOH, 2004). Report on the development of resistance to artemisinins and their associate drugs will cruelly limit the utility of ACT in future, leaving little or no alternative treatment or malaria. Consequently to develop alternative therapy, research on anti-malaria is urgently vital.

Lots of undocumented and unverified herbs are being used today as single and as poly-herbals in treatment of malaria fever. The diversity of chemical compounds found in these herbs could contribute greatly as an important source of molecular templates in the search for new and novel antimalarial drugs. Khayagrandifoliaroot bark, use in treatment of malaria fever was scientifically documented as a possibly safe, effective, affordable and active antimalarial agent. This study is therefore justifiable as it ascertain the suppressive antimalarial effect of Khaya Gradifolia stem-bark in mice.

PREVALENCE OF HEPATITIS A AND B AMONG STUDENT OF FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NASARAWA, NASARAWA STATE

ABSTRACT

This study was carried out to determine the prevalence of hepatitis A and hepatitis B antibodies among students attending the Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa. 5ml of blood sample was collected from 100 respondents whose demographic data was captured using questionnaire. Commercial diagnostic tools manufactured by Aria diagnostic incorporation U.S.A was used. HBsAg( hepatitis B surface antigen) was found to be higher in males 9.09% than in females also the highest prevalence of 6.25% was recorded in the age group of 21-25 years. Respondents of middle class socioeconomic status had the highest prevalence of 7.04% and those with three or more sex partners has the highest prevalence of 7.69%. None of the sample tested was positive for hepatitis A. This study shows the study area is moderately endemic for hepatitis B. Effort should be made to enlighten the community on ways to curtail the spread and encouraged people to go for hepatitis B vaccine immunization. Also having protective sexual intercourse should be encouraged.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver. The condition can be self-limiting or can progress his fibrosis (scarring), cirrhosis or liver cancer, hepatitis in the world but other inflections, toxic substances (e.g alcohol, certain drugs), and autoimmune diseases can also cause hepatitis.(Noubiap et al., 2015).

There are five (5) main hepatitis viruses, referred to as type A,B,C,D and E. These five types are of greatest concern because of the burden of illness and death they cause and the potential for outbreaks and epidemic spread in particular, type B and C lead to chronic disease in hundreds of millions of people and, together are the most common cause of liver cirrhosis and cancer. (Fonguernie et al., 2015).

Hepatitis A viruses (HAV) is present in the faeces of infected persons and is most often transmitted through consumption of contaminated water or food. Certain sex practices can also spread hepatitis A virus (HAV). Infection are in many cases mild. With most people making a full recovering and remaining immune from further HAV infections. However, HAV infections can also be server and life threatening. Most people in areas of the world with poor sanitation have been infected with this virus, HAV infection usually make adults sick with symptoms including fever, fatigue, nausea, abdominal crabs headaches, poor appetite, save and infective vaccines are available to prevent HAV (Koziel and Peter 2007).

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is transmitted through exposure to infective blood, semen, and other body fluid. HBV can be transmitted from infected mothers to infant at the time of birth or from family member to infants in early childhood. Transfusion of HBV contaminated blood and blood products, contaminated injection during medical procedures, and through injection drug use, HBV also poses risk to health care workers who sustain accidental needle stick injuries while caring for infected HBV patient (Forbi et al; 2007).

You can have HAV without having any symptoms, and sometimes it will clear up naturally without progressing to a chronic infection, leaving you with immunity. People who have chronic HBV infection, however, can develop liver disease, liver failure cause of chronic disease Alhuraiji et al; 2014).

When someone is infected with both hepatitis A and B viruses we say that they are “co-infection” (Noutiap et al; 2015).

1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Hepatitis has been reported to be prevalent among young adolescent in Nigeria and North central Nigeria.

1.2 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

This study is being carried out to determine the prevalence of hepatitis in Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa because there is dearth of information (electronic, print and journal) on the prevalence of these viruses, hence the need for this research.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

AIM

To determine the prevalence of hepatitis A and B viruses among of students of Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa, Nasarawa State.
OBJECTIVE
To determine the prevalence of hepatitis A in the study population
To determine the prevalence of hepatitis B in the study population.
To determine co-infection of hepatitis A and B virus infection.
To determine prevalence in relation demographic factor.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Hepatitis is a virus that result in liver damage. The virus is not the actual cause for the liver damage but it is caused by the immune system response. It can be spread from person to person. Infection by the virus can cause an acute infection or can become a chronic condition. Treatment are based on the form of hepatitis virus, acute or chronic.

Hepatitis B virus is the etiological agent of hepatitis B. hepatitis B is transmitted through bodily fluids such as blood to blood contact, semen, vaginal discharge, breast milk, and saliva by the reservoir of humans. It can also be transmitted during childbirth (El-Mortada 2010).

The characteristic of hepatitis B are that it is a DNA virus and is in the family of hepadnaviridae. Test that are performed on an individual to check for the hepatitis B virus are hepatitis B surface antigen test, hepatitis B e-antigen test, and HBV DNA testing, hepatitis B surface antibody test. Hepatitis surface antigen test can detects HBV before symptoms occur. It test for HBsAg antibodies and if the antibodies are present the individual is still contagious. Hepatitis B surface antibody test determine if an individual was infected and recovered from the disease at some point. Hepatitis B surface antibody test detects HBsAg antigen. The presents of HBsAg antigens determines that the individual was infected at some point and is no longer contagious. Hepatitis B e-antigen test finds the HBV protein. It is established during a current infection and can determine how contagious an individual is. HBV DNA in a patient. Elevated level of HBV DNA shows that the patient is currently infected with the hepatitis B virus, the virus is multiplying and the patient is highly contagious (Essing 2009).

Tuesday 3 January 2023

PREVALENCE OF HEPATITIS B AND C COINFECTION VIRUS AMONG PREGNANT WOMEN

PREVALENCE OF HEPATITIS B AND C COINFECTION VIRUS AMONG PREGNANT WOMEN

A CASE STUDY OF MODEL HOSPITAL NASARAWA

ABSTRACT

The study investigated the prevalence of hepatitis B and C coinfection virus among pregnant women, a case study of General Hospital Nasarawa with the specific objective to determine the prevalence of Hepatitis B and C co-infection among pregnant women and to determine the prevalence of HBV and HCV co-infection in relation to some socio-demographic and risk factors, namely, sex, age, marital status and occupation. The population of the study were pregnant women attending antenatal in general hospitalNasarawa. The results of this study showed that the prevalence of HBsAg and HCsAg among pregnant women attending antenatal in general hospital was 11% which according to the WHO classification for Hepatitis B and C endemicity, Nasarawa is a hyper-endemic area for hepatitis B and C virus infection. This prevalence is identical to the study at the Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital Zaria (ABUTH), Nigeria 11% respectively (Eke et al., 2011). Finally, it is recommended that pregnant woman should be mandatorily and routinely screened for hepatitis B and C virus infection as part of antenatal care services in their booking; also infants and new borns must be systematically immunized against hepatitis B and C virus infection. Public awareness, complete immunization against viral hepatitis, better sanitation facilities, safe drinking water, increased availability of antenatal care for early detection and well equipped hospitals for intensive care will go long way in the reduction of viral hepatitis in pregnancy and also its associated maternal and per-natal mortality and morbidity.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Hepatitis B and C are one of the major and common infectious diseases of the liver worldwide caused by a small enveloped DNA virus, the hepatitis B and C virus (HBV and HCV). Nigeria is classified among the group of countries endemic for HBV and HCV infection ((Sirisenaet al, 2002). Currently about 18 million Nigerians are infected. Many of these people may not be aware of the infection and hence fail to seek appropriate medical attention therefore progressing to chronic liver disease, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Similarly when pregnant women are involved, they constitute a serious health risk not only to their unborn child but also the society at large (Jomboet al, 2005).

Hepatitis B is an infectious illness of the liver caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV) that affects apes, including humans (Chang, 2007; Barker et al.,1996). The virus was first discovered as “Australia antigen”, later named hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), in patient blood. Hepatitis Be antigen (HBeAg) was identified several years later as a marker for patients at high risk for transmission of the disease (Tong et al, 2005). The acute illness causes liver inflammation, vomiting, jaundice, and rarely, death. Chronic hepatitis B may eventually cause cirrhosis and liver cancer – a disease with poor response to all but a few current therapies (Tong et al, 2005).

The virus is transmitted by exposure to infectious blood or body fluids such as semen and vaginal fluids, while viral DNA has been detected in the saliva, tears, and urine of chronic carriers. Prenatal infection is a major route of infection in areas of the world where the disease is common (Chang, 2007). Other risk factors for developing HBV infection include working in a healthcare setting, transfusions, dialysis, sharing razors or toothbrushes with an infected person, travel in countries where it is common, and living in an institution. Tattooing and acupuncture led to a significant number of cases in the 1980s; however, this has become less common with improved sterility. The hepatitis B viruses cannot be spread by holding hands, sharing eating utensils or drinking glasses, kissing, hugging, coughing, sneezing, or breastfeeding(Chang, 2007).

Hepatitis B and C virus are hepadnavirus-hepa from hepatotropic (attracted to the liver) and DNA because it is a DNA virus – and it has a circular genome of partially double-stranded DNA. The viruses replicate through an RNA intermediate form by reverse transcription, which in practice relates them to retroviruses. Although replication takes place in the liver, the virus spreads to the blood where viral proteins and antibodies against them are found in infected people. The hepatitis B virus is 50 to 100 times more infectious than HIV (Hiuet al., 2005)

The prevalence of HBV and HCV in a population is related to risk factors associated with the transmission, such as blood transfusion and blood products, dental and surgical procedures, use of tattoos, accidents with biological material, use of injectable substances, besides the sexual and vertical routes (Bruggmann, et al., 2014).

Maternal-fetal transmission is of great importance in the epidemiology of viral hepatitis. In children of HBV infected mothers, vertical transmission carries a risk of progression to chronicity in 70%–90% of the cases(14,15). The present study had as objectives: to determine the seroprevalence of hepatitis B and C in the prenatal patients of the Hospital HospitalUniversitárioAntônio Pedro, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro; to compare the data found with the regional data and those described in the specific literature and to provide demographic, clinical and epidemiological data to the literature that may be used for the formulation of policies in the area (Andrade et al., 2015).

There are few studies in national and international literature addressing the prevalence of the coinfection of hepatitis B and C in pregnant women. As this is still a worldwide worrying and the early detection in prenatal care can avoid a series of deleterious outcomes for the pregnant woman and its child, the concern of deepening the study in this area arose with a more accurate evaluation of the epidemiological profile of pregnant women from the Nigeria and Nasarawa in particular. Thus, prenatal exams provide a great opportunity for screening and identifying these viruses in this population that could serve as a natural reservoir for future generations.

1.0 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Hepatitis B and C are life-threatening liver disease, caused by hepatitis B and C virus, and is a major public health problem, particularly in developing countries like Nigeria(Andrade et al., 2015). The prevalence of HBV and HCV in a population can be predicted by risk factors associated with the transmission of infection such as injections, blood products transfusion, surgical procedures, body tattooing, occupational injury, sexual and vertical transmission (Akbar et al., 2017) many infected individuals deny history of any of these risks so that the likely source remains unidentified in some subjects however, the prevalence varies from area to area and population to population due to variability in ethnicity and socioeconomic conditions (Haider et al., 2018). Viral hepatitis during pregnancy is associated with high risk of maternal complications. Infections with the Hepatitis B virus (HBV) or the Hepatitis C virus (HCV) are public health problems and are highly endemic in the sub-Saharan Africa (Haider et al., 2018). HBV and HCV infections are a major cause of morbidity and mortality. The virus is transmitted through infected blood, sexually and vertically (mother to child) in the perinatal period. Perinatal transmission is the most common mode of HBV transmission worldwide (Kuru, 2016).

Although, studies have been carried out on HBV and HCV in other parts of the country, information is very scarce on the prevalence of the coinfection of HBV and HCV among pregnant women attending antenatal in General Hospital Nasarawa. As a result guidelines and other adequate information on the prevention and control strategies are lacking. This is because effective public health policy and awareness campaign for the need to know one’s hepatitis B and C status is lacking. Are people even aware of this hepatitis B and C virus? How can it be transmitted? What are the signs, symptoms and prevention and control?These questions give rise to the need to carry out this study on the prevalence of Hepatitis B and C coinfection virus among pregnant women attending General Hospital Nasarawa.

1.1 Aim and Objectives ofthe Study

1.2 Aim

The aim of this study is to investigate the prevalence of hepatitis B and C coinfection virus among pregnant women, a case study of Model Hospital Nasarawa

Objectives

To determine the prevalence of Hepatitis B and C co-infection among pregnant women

To determine the prevalence of HBV and HCV co-infection in relation to some socio-

demographic and risk factors, namely, sex, age, marital status and occupation

ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF MICROORGANISM ASSOCIATED WITH WHITE AND YELLOW GARRI AND THEIR SUSCEPTIBILITY PATTERN TO BOTH ANTIBIOTICS AND ANTIFUNGAL AGENTS

ABSTRACT

This study assessed the microorganisms associated with white and yellow garri and their susceptibility patterns to both antibiotics and antifungal agent. The study specifically isolate the bacteria present in white and yellow garri, after which the susceptibility pattern of the isolates to antibiotics and antifungal agents was determined. The result shows that the microbial count of white and yellow types of garri samples obtained from the market are within the limits of 10^-2 to 10^-4cfug^-1 and are contaminated with coliforms and fungi to about the same order. The study also reveals that the garri samples were contaminated by diverse microbial spp mainly of Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Klebsiella and Micrococcus luteus. The bacteria and fungi isolated have different levels of antibiotics and fungi resistance to antibiotics and antifungal agents. The presence of susceptibility of bacterials and fungi in garri can pose a public health hazard when transferred to humans by consuming garri contaminated with the organisms; thus it is recommended people especially students should be encouraged to reduce intake of garri without thorough thermal treatment to prevent food infections or intoxications. There is need for garri processors and retailers to maintain stricter personal hygiene and food safety consciousness in terms of using clean covered transparent containers as garri retailing containers so as to reduce direct and indirect contaminations by air-borne droplets and spores of the isolates in dust and air.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Garri is a traditional cassava flakes; in simple terms it is flour made from cassava (Mannihot esculenta) that is popular among the people of West Africa (Akindele et al., 2018). The production involves peeling of the cassava tuber, soaking in water for about 6 days followed by grinding into a pulp. Afterwards, the pulp is placed in a spongy bag under compression in order to strain out the water content before frying in a calabash-like pot (Adeyemo et al., 2018). The resulting flake from frying is known as Garri which can be used in processing various food delicacies as well as taken raw like cornflakes. This ready-to-eat property of Garri makes it a widely acceptable quick-fix meal (Orji et al., 2016). It should be noted that during the process of manufacturing, the pulp gets exposed to microbiological contamination. However, during the fermentation period, lactic acid bacteria involved in the natural fermentation is suggested to have antimicrobial properties that lower counts of the possible pathogenic bacterial contaminant (Adeyemo et al., 2018).

Lactic acid bacteria are a group of gram positive, catalase negative, non-spore forming and non-motile bacteria that produces lactic acid as a major end product of glucose fermentation. They are widely grouped into three: obligate homofermentative (for example Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus salivarus), facultative heterofermentative (for example Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus curvatus) and obligate heterofermentative (Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus reuteri) based on their sugar fermentation profile (Buddhiman et al., 2008). Consequently, within LAB group, Lactobacillus have been identified as one of the most important in traditional fermented food that are mainly used in functional food production and as a starter culture in food fermentation. They are able to utilize the nutrient in the food matrix for fermentation, producing byproducts such as organic acids, aromatic compounds and antimicrobial peptides termed bacteriocin that limits growth of pathogenic organisms (Mamta et al., 2017).

Although there are several pathogenic bacteria which are food contaminants (Frantamico et al., 2007) that can also be found in garri, Escherichia coli is of great concern (Fossi and Ndjouenkeu, 2017). This is due to the fact that one of the most important causative agents of diarrhoeal disease has mainly been Escherichia coli (Frantamico et al., 2007) and the process of handling garri during production predisposes it to contamination by E. coli. Furthermore, it has been a serious public health issue worldwide; irrespe of the source of transmission either environmental or clinical E. coli are always of great health concern (Steven and David, 2014).

Thus, beneficial organisms such as Lactobacillus with documented safety profile possessing antagonistic potential against pathogens have received increased attention for their possible usage as probiotics in place of antibiotics (Servin, 2004). This study aims to isolate lactic acid bacteria within the garri matrix that has inhibitory effect on E. coli isolated from clinical settings.

1.1 Aims and objectives

1.1.1 Aim

To access the microorganism associated with white and yellow garri and their susceptibility patterns to both antibiotics and antifungal agent.

1.1.2 Objectives

To isolate the bacteria present in white and yellow garri sold in Nasarawa market and to identify the fungi present in the garri sample
To determine the susceptibility pattern of microorganism to both antibiotics and antifungal agents.

PREVALENCE OF HEPATITIS B AND C COINFECTION VIRUS AMONG PREGNANT WOMEN

PREVALENCE OF HEPATITIS B AND C COINFECTION VIRUS AMONG PREGNANT WOMEN

A CASE STUDY OF MODEL HOSPITAL NASARAWA

ABSTRACT

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

1.1 Aim and Objectives ofthe Study

1.2 Aim

The aim of this study is to investigate the prevalence of hepatitis B and C coinfection virus among pregnant women, a case study of Model Hospital Nasarawa

Objectives

To determine the prevalence of Hepatitis B and C co-infection among pregnant women

To determine the prevalence of HBV and HCV co-infection in relation to some socio-

demographic and risk factors, namely, sex, age, marital status and occupation

Sunday 1 January 2023

ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE OF SOME MICROORGANISMS ISOLATED FROM DUMPSITE

ABSTRACT

This study assessed the level of microbial contamination of air around three different dumpsites in Nasarawa local government area, Nasarawa state. Air samples were collected from the site. Organisms were isolated, the colonies of the isolates were counted, identified and tested for antibiotic resistance (ABR) using standard procedures. Results in this study shows that 236.7 distinct colonies was isolated from location A, 268 and 187.7 from location B and C respectively. The isolates were sub-cultured into SSA, MAC, and EMB agar medium. The bacteria isolates are: S. aureus, S. epidermidis, Klebstella, Pneumonia, E.coli and Enterobacter aerogene. The Fungi results shows that 13.5 colonies was isolated from location A, 19 colonies was isolated from Location B while 9.5 colonies was isolated from location C. The fungi isolates are; Aspergillus niger, Mucorrace mosus and Rhizopus orazae. The pattern of resistance of the bacterial isolates were Streptomycin (90%), Ampicilin (100%), Ciprorex (90%), Oxofloxacine (90%), Nalidixic acid (100%), Pefloxacine (100%), gentamicin (80%), Augumentin (100%), Ciproflax (90%), Septrin (100%) while the percentage resistance of the gram positive isolates is as follows: Levofloxacin (90%), Ampliclox (90%), Chloramphenicol (90%), erythromycin (80%), Rifampicin (90%), Streptomycin (100%), Amoxil (100%), Gentamycin (100%), Norfloxacin (100%) and Ciproflox (90%). The research work revealed the relevance of an Environmental microbiology department in any governmental waste management system and the potential hazard of the open dump system of waste disposal around residential area.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

In Nigeria as well as in most developing countries, the urban landscapes are littered with garbage, plastics, bottles, disposable cups, discarded tires and even human and live-stock faeces. These wastes are aesthetically unpleasant, constitute eyesores, produce unpleasant odour especially when their organic compositions are acted upon by putrefying bacteria. These refuse dumps thus constitute a habitat for vector and other nuisance organisms capable of transmitting or causing diseases such as typhoid, infantile diarrhoea and cholera in humans and animals (Olanrewaju, 2012).

Dumpsite or refuse dumps refer to areas or land sites where material wastes from several sources and processes are deposited. Refuse dumps include both municipal solid wastes and industrial wastes including liquid effluents containing heavy metals (Olanrewaju, 2012). Refuse dumps provide a rich source of microorganisms most of which are pathogenic (Odeyemi et al., 2011). This is usually as a result of the attraction of rodents and vector insects for which the dump serves as shelter and food source (Donderski et al., 2020). Although it is known that vector insects and rodents can transmit various pathogenic agents of diseases such as amoebic and bacillary dysentery, typhoid fever, salmonellosis, cholera, plague and so on. A good percentage of these infections are caused by bacteria which are suspended in air around these refuse dumps which may later settle and cause contamination. Activities involving the disposal of solid wastes even if properly controlled with proper precautionary measures adopted may have adverse impact on the environment especially air since most of the dumps are open.

A microorganism, or microbe, is an organism of microscopic size, which may exist in its single-celled form or as a colony of cells (Osazee, et al., 2013). Microorganisms are transported from refuse dumps to the atmosphere with the wind. Their survival depends on their resistance, meteorological conditions, air pollution and time spent in the atmosphere.

Airborne microbes are biological airborne contaminants like bacteria, viruses or fungi as well as airborne toxins passed from one victim to the next through the air, without physical contact, causing irritation at the very least. Microorganisms are transported from refuse dumps to the atmosphere with the wind. Their survival depends on their resistance, meteorological conditions, air pollution and time spent in the atmosphere. According to various studies, the range of bioaerosol emission is considerable and may reach 1000–1200 m from the border of the site (Thirarattanasunthon et al., 2012).

The most susceptible group of individuals to the public health hazards associated with domestic dumpsites are waste-pickers (scavengers) who live and work under unhygienic conditions. They are usually seen to visit dumpsites in search of recyclable materials (plastics, bottles, metallic objects, and clothes). This increases the risk of infections through inhalation of contaminated aerosols, cuts from sharp objects and infection of wounds by soil pathogens (Thirarattanasunthon et al., 2012).

Multidrug resistance among microbial populations has become a major global problem. These microbes have developed mechanisms of evading the effects of various antibiotics currently in use. Oviasogie and Agbonlahor (2013), while studying the burden, antibiogram and pathogenicity of bacteria found in municipal waste dumpsites and on waste site workers in Benin City discovered that all isolates obtained showed multiple antibiotic resistance patterns. They also discovered that some of these isolates carried pathogenic traits. This high prevalence can be linked to the introduction of resistant strains via indiscriminate disposal of medical wastes as well as defecation by human carriers and livestock. Resistance genes may then be acquired by other susceptible strains in the environment via horizontal gene transfer. The fact that there is high diversity of antimicrobial resistant bacteria in dumpsites as well as frequent animal and human interactions on dumpsites increases the chances of infection with antimicrobial resistant pathogens among human populations.

In order to develop appropriate air quality management plans, it is necessary first to have reliable information about the state of airborne bacteria and fungi especially in the vicinity of waste dumpsites. Therefore, this study was undertaken to determine the antibiotic resistance of microorganism isolated from dumpsite in Nasarawa town, the headquarter of Nasarawa local government of Nasarawa State.

1.2 Statement of Problems

The anaerobic conditions typical in most dumps, these microorganisms convert the organic material in the refuse to methane and carbon dioxide. As the gas rises through the dump and escapes into the atmosphere, it some-times picks up other compounds. The presence of large amounts of methane in this uncontrolled environment may result in explosions and fires. Additionally, this untreated gas may contain other compounds that pose a substantial health risk to nearby communities. Many microbes can remain viable even after extended periods of time aloft despite the challenges associated with surviving in the atmosphere, including extended UV expo-sure, low moisture levels and extremely oligotrophic conditions (Jones and Harrison, 2004). Atmospheric transport is a key mode of microbial dispersal (Stetzenbach et al., 2014) and the transmission of airborne plant and animal pathogens can have significant impacts on ecosystems, human health and agricultural productivity.

Another problem is the use of recycled packaging materials obtained from dumpsites for selling food items in markets. Also, most municipal dumpsites in Nigeria are located at distances not far away from residential houses. This makes these waste dumpsites an environmental interest as not just scavengers are prone to the health hazards associated with dumpsites but also residents of urban societies (Osazeeet al., 2013). This study, therefore, focused on the antimicrobial resistance of microorganism (Bacteria and fungi) isolated from dumpsite in Nasarawa.

1.3 Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to investigate antimicrobial resistance of microorganism (bacteria and fungi) isolated from dumpsite in Nasarawa

1.4 Objectives of the Study

To isolate bacteria and fungi present in air around specific dumpsites in Nasarawa town.
Identify and characterize the isolates
Determine their levels of resistance to antibiotics

1.5 Significance of the Study

The open dump system of waste disposal is indeed a potential environmental quality problem which takes the form of unsightliness, land and water pollution, it reduces the quality of air by the emission of foul odours and different gases derived from the anaerobic decomposition as well as occasional burning.

The findings of this study will be of great importance to residence of Nasarawa town as it will educate them on the need for proper waste disposal and the disadvantages associated with open dumpsites.

The Nasarawa local government area authority will find this study of great use as it will enlighten them on the best waste management practices, waste re-use and recycling. As it will enable them to Legislate laws and regulations on land use and effective waste disposal and management in the town.

Wednesday 30 November 2022

GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIA (GNB) ISOLATED FROM USED HOME-MADE AND SURGICAL NOSE/FACE MASK

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Micro-organisms can spread easily, and the air itself (Shivakumar et al., 2017). Bioaerosols formed from specific equipment usages, these are invisible to the naked eye and can remain in the environment as aerosols for long periods of time. These aerosols may be inhaled into the lungs to migrate to the alveoli or may come in contact with the skin or mucous membranes (Shivakumar et al., 2017). Aerosol that are 100 micrometer or more in diameter are thought to be too large to be inhaled; however, they may still come into contact with the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes or may settle down on the exposed hair and clothing. Thus, diseases like pneumonia, influenza, hepatitis, may be transmitted with skin and eye (Shivakumar et al., 2017). Since masks protect the mucous membranes of the nose and mouth, they must be worn wherever there is a potential for splashing, saliva or body fluids, or where there is a probability of the inhalation of aerosols with a potential for transmission of airborne pathogens.

Nose mask is an essential infection control barrier, a very important subject in the prevention of infectious diseases. Surgical masks are fluid- repellent paper filter masks and are suitable for both surgical and non-surgical individuals procedures that generate aerosols.. This three-ply material is made up from a melt blown material placed between non-woven fabrics. The melt-blown material acts as the filter that stops microbes from entering or exiting the mask. Most surgical and home made masks feature pleats/folds commonly three pleated are used allowing the user to expand the mask so it covers from the nose and under the chin (Baratam, 2014). According to the CDC guidelines, surgical nose and home made mask is a personal protective barrier (CDC, 2013). The use of surgical nose masks is synonymous with the use by the public and is so deeply ingrained that to question it would have been unheard of until recently (Lipp, 2013). Unlike the white coats, the filtration abilities of a mask begins to decline after approximately 20 minutes with exposure to moisture and the external surface of a mask gets contaminated by the aerosols present in the environment and becomes a source of cross contamination and thus requires proper disposal, but unfortunately,local resident of AkungbaAkoko, Ondo state Nigeria dispose the used nose/ face mask indiscriminately and reused the nose mask, this create a false sense of protection against various diseases causative agent. This research work is an eye opener to the inherent danger of reused nose/face mask.

A surgical nose mask is a single-use device designed to retain infective agents present in the exhaled breath. Surgical masks are often referred to as face masks, but not all commercially available face masks are regulated as surgical masks a very good example is the home made nose mask. Surgical masks are made to act as barrier to droplets or aerosols while surgical respirators are made to filter out airborne particles including viruses and bacteria. Surgical masks and surgical respirators are marked as medical devices. For example, N95 means that the mask provides the intended effectiveness of filtering 95% of particles with a mass median diameter of 0.3 micrometers(Lipp, 2013).

Non-woven fabric i.eHome made mask, has better bacteria filtration efficiency and air permeability, while remaining less slippery than the woven cloth (Henneberry, 2020). It is most commonly made of polypropylene, or, in combination with polyethylene of PET polyester. The filtration level of a mask will therefore depend on the types of the non-woven fabrics used for its manufacture and these will vary according to the application. According to the standards surgical masks are made to be effective at filtering out particles such as bacteria above 1 micron.

The home made nose mask are nose mask that is hand weaving or swing machine made nose mask, made from different fabric of layered cloth, a, mechanical barrier for inhalation of Bioaerosols. Both Home-made Nose mask (HNM) and Surgical Nose mask (SNM) are effective in preventing the transmission of infectious diseases like influenza virus and Corona virus (Cowling et al., 2019). The level of protection of masks against infectious diseases depends on multiple factors such as the appropriate usage and fit of the mask, level of exposure, compliance, complementary interventions (such as hands washing), early use , as well as the type of mask (Maclintyre, 2014). A recent study indicated that surgical face masks could, in a real-life situation, prevent the transmission of common cold and corona viruses from symptomatic individuals (Greenhalgh, 2020).

A recent study indicated that surgical face masks could in a real-life situation, prevent the transmission of common cold and corona viruses from symptomatic individuals (Greenhalgh, 2020). The WHO recommends that PPE masks should be used based on the risk of exposure (e.g., type of activity) and the transmission dynamics of the pathogen (e.g., contact, droplet, or aerosol). The use of masks may give users a false sense of protection, thus encouraging risk-taking. Although the effectiveness of reusable face masks is unclear, this is one of the reason that necessitate this research work, a response from on the short age of single-use masks states that reusable masks do offer some form of protection .

However, protocols on how to use reusable masks alongside complementary interventions should be developed to increase their affectivity in protecting against infection studied the effectiveness of homemade mask in blocking transmission of the microorganisms in healthy volunteers. Generally, the effectiveness of a cloth (Home-made) masks would depend on the fit, fineness of the cloth and the number of layers indicating that there is potential to design more effective fabrics (Home-made)masks. Most single-use face masks have an inbuilt filter,allowing for the insertion of a filter in a fabrics (Home-made), may increase their filtration capacities. There are concerns that use of masks may give general public a false sense of protection, thus encouraging risk-taking. Protocols should be developed on how to use and clean reusable masks alongside complementary interventions frequent to increase their affectivity in protecting against infection.

1.2 Statement of Problem

During the current coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the use of home-made and surgical nose/face masks has become increasingly recommended or even mandatory in community settings outside hospitals and care facilities (. Nose/Face masks are most often used to prevent respiratory droplet transmission and reduce transmission from people infected with respiratory viruses to non-infected people (Shivakumar et al., 2017).The efficacy of face masks against different airborne transmissions is now questionable as there is a general assumption that both home-made and surgical nose/face mask may be subject to bacteria infection and unsafe to use due to over-use or improper usage of the mask. In fact, the human saliva contains 100 million bacterial cells per milliliter and harbors a range of pathobionts, including Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, Klebsiellapneumoniae, Neisseria, Prevotella, and Veillonella spp. (Gender et al., 2013). This has become a thing of concern thus, this study becomes necessary to examine the Gram Negative Bacteria (GNB) isolated from used home-made and surgical nose / face mask.

1.3 Objective of the Study

The objective of this study is investigate gram negative bacteria isolated from used home-made and surgical nose/face mask.

Specifically the study will

Isolate and identify and determine the characteristics of the isolated bacteria
Determine the biochemical characteristics of the isolated bacteria
Identify the gram negative bacteria isolated from the used home-made / surgical nose / face mask.

Sunday 27 November 2022

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE CONTENTS OF FLAVONOID AND TANNIN IN PAWPAW LEAF

ABSTRACT

This study carried out a qualitative and quantitative content analysis of flavonoid and tannin in pawpaw (Carica papaya) leaf. Flavonoid and tannin are among the major chemical compounds (Phytochemicals) that occur naturally in plants especially in Pawpaw leave. They are characterized by multilateral pharmacological activity and broad spectrum of therapeutic actions. The qualitative phytochemical analysis of Carica papaya leaves showed the presence of flavonoid and Tannin. The qualitative test was justified by their color changes with their various reagents.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Natural fruits with high dietary value play a significant role to the and urban communities in the form of food and nutrient enhancement. Plants are important in our everyday existence. They provide our foods, produce the oxygen we breathe, and serve as raw materials for many industrial products such as clothes, foot wears and so many others. Plants also provide raw materials for our buildings and in the manufacture of biofuels, dyes, perfumes, pesticides, adsorbents and drugs. The plant kingdom has proven to be the most useful in the treatment of diseases and they provide an important source of all the world’s pharmaceuticals. The most important of these bioactive constituents of plants are steroids, terpenoids, carotenoids, flavanoids, alkaloids, tannins and glycosides. Plants in all facet of life have served a valuable starting material for drug development (Ajibesin, 2011).

In modern existence, the function and advantageous effects of numerous phytonutrients from plant origins such as fruits and vegetables had drawn the much-needed attention from both the scientists as well as the general public. These phytochemicals are non- synthetic antioxidant which are often promoted owing to the concerns as regards toxicity of the synthetic ones. Asides from scavenging activity of free radicals, antioxidants identified from most of the plants possess health beneficial effects such as antibacterial, antiviral etc (Akah, Enwerem and Gamaniel, 2007)

Carica Papaya is a brief, evergreen plant that grows up to 25 feet tall. Its hollow trunk is noticeable with leaf scars. The leaves grow in a spiraled huddle straight from the upper part of the stem on parallel petioles (leaf stalks) 1 to 31/2 feet long. The leaves are intensely divided and with an array in width from 1 to 2 feet. Naturally, the male and female flowers are produced on separate plants; however, there are hermaphrodite forms in cultivation which bear both male and female flowers on the same plant. The flowers are fleshy and waxy and have a light scent. The fruit has a taste of a combination of melons and peaches. Although, these trees are grown primarily for their fruit, however the tree contains latex from which papain, a digestive enzyme is extracted. Papain breaks down protein in meat to make it tender therefore Papaya can be used as a meat tenderizer (Baur, Sourer and Weiss, 2008)

It has several uses in this Modern-day including Immuno-modulatory , Fiber of c. papaya is able to bind cancer-causing toxins in the colon and keep them away from the healthy colon cells, protein enzymes including papain, chymopapain and antioxidant nutrients in papaya including vitamin C, vitamins E, and beta-carotene, reduce the severity of asthma, osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. It provides the human with protection against inflammatory polyarthritis a form of rheumatoid arthritis involving two or more joints. It helps the lung to be healthy and save life, rubbing the white pulp of raw c. papaya expels pimples as well as wrinkles. Papaya works as a good bleaching agent (Everette, 2013).

The ripe papaya fruit contains significant amounts of macro and micro minerals which are Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn. Ripe papaya is most commonly consumed as fresh fruit whereas green papaya as vegetable usually after cooking or boiling (Everette, 2013). Some of its allergies are link to a latex fluid when it is not ripe, which can cause irritation and provoke allergic reaction in some people, excessive consumption of papaya can cause carotenemia, the yellowing of soles and palms, which is otherwise harmless. However, a very large dose would need to be consumed. Papaya contains about 6% of the level of beta carotene in carrots (the most common cause of carotenemia) (Everette, 2013).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Antibiotics or antimicrobial substances like flavonoids and Tannins etc are found to be distributed in plants, yet these compounds were not well established due to the lack of knowledge and techniques. The phyto-constituents which are phenols, anthraquinones, alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids and saponins are antibiotic principles of plants. Plants are now occupying important position in allopathic medicine, herbal medicine, homoeopathy and aromatherapy. Medicinal plants are the sources of many important drugs of the modern world. Many of these indigenous medicinal plants are used as spices and food plants; they are also sometimes added to foods meant for pregnant mothers for medicinal purposes (Akinpela and Onakoya, 2006). Many plants are cheaper and more accessible to most people especially in the developing countries than orthodox medicine, and there is lower incidence of adverse effects after use. These reasons might account for their worldwide attention and use. The medicinal properties of some plants have been documented by some researchers ( Akinpelu and Onukoya, 2006).

Medicinal plants are of great importance to the health of individuals and communities. It was the advent of antibiotics in the 1950s that led to the decline of the use of plant derivatives as antimicrobials (Marjorie, 1999). Medicinal plants contain physiologically active components which over the years have been exploited in the traditional medical practices for the treatment of various ailments (Ajibesin, 2011). A relatively small percentage of less than 10% of all the plants on earth is believed to serve as sources of medicine (Marjorie, 1999).

1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study

Aim

The general aim of this study is to carry out a qualitative and quantitivate contents analysis of flavonoid and tannin in Pawpaw leaf.

Objectives

The specific objective of this study include:

To carry out a proximate constituents analysis of pawpaw leaf
To determine the qualitative and quantitative contents of Tannin and flavonoid in pawpaw leaf