QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE CONTENTS OF ALKALOID AND SAPONIN IN BITTER LEAF

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE CONTENTS OF ALKALOID AND SAPONIN IN BITTER LEAF

ABSTRACT

 The study investigated the qualitative and quantitative contents of alkaloid and saponin in bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina). The study was aimed to determine the presence of alkaloid and saponin in terms of quantity and quality. The qualitative and quantitative phytochemical screening of the extract indicated the presence of Alkaloid  and saponin, with saponin being the most abundant constituent. Quantitative analysis of the methanol extract of  V. amygdylina presented  in Table 1 revealed that saponins were heavily detected in V. amygdylina (+++)  while Alkaloids analysis by the different tests revealed similar level of alkaloids (+ i.e., slightly detected) in the plant leaf extracts. The results of obtained from quantitative analysis (mg/ g of extract) of methanol extract of  V. amygdalina are presented in Table 2. From the results, the lowest concentration (mg/g of phytochemicals analyzed in the methanol extract V. amygdalina was recorded for  alkaloids and saponins,  V. amygdalina had a higher concentration of Saponins (7.43 mg/g of extract) and alkaloid at 5.76+0.01.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background of the Study

From time immemorial, man depended on plants as sources of drugs and 75% – 90% of the rural populations of the world have still not emerged from the use of plants as herbal remedy (kong et al., 2003). The phytochemicals present in plants are responsible for their use in medical practice especially, tradomedicine (Aliyu et al., 2011, Sexena et al., 2013). These phytochemicals have various protective functions for the plants, but not nutritional function; while at the same time they have various health benefits for man (Sexena et al., 2013). Phytochemicals include vitamins, terpeniods, phenolic acids, lignins, stibenes, tannins, flavonoids, quinines, coumarines, alkaloids, amines and betalains (Gracelin et al., 2013).

Vernonia amygdalina (V. amygdalina) commonly called “Bitter Leaf” in English Language (Oguwike et al., 2013) is a member of the Asteraceae family, a small ever green shrub of the tropical African region, especially in West Africa (Ikhajiangbe-Happy et al., 2014). It is known by different names such as Onugbu (Igbo), Shiwaka (Hausa), Ewuro (Yoruba) and Kinologbo (Ijaw) (Kigagha and Onyema, 2015).

It is usually used for dietary purposes, especially after washing the leaves to remove the bitter taste (Oboh and Masodje, 2009). The bitter taste is due to factors such as alkaloids, saponins, tannins and glycosides (Adetunji et al., 2013). In ethno-medicinal practice, the roots and leaves are used to treat fever, kidney problems, hiccups and stomach discomfort. Its blood clothing properties and its ability to reduce blood glucose has also been exploited in the trado-medical practice (Udochukwu et al., 2015). Also reported are its uses as treatment of gastro-intestinal problems, malaria, tooth ache and fertility problems (Eyo et al., 2013).Some of its pharmacological activities are antibacterial (Adetunji et al., 2013, Kigagha and Onyema, 2015, Udochukwu et al., 2015), antimicrobial and hypolipaemic and anti-diabetic effect (Ikhajiangbe-Happy et al., 2014, Oboh and Masodje, 2009). It is also a good haemostatic control agent and a good blood sugar reducing agent (Oguwike et al., 2013). Proximate analysis of the leaves of V.

1amygdalina shows that it is a good dietary item. The phytochemical analysis of V. amygdalina shows that it contains proanthocyanidins, flavonoids, alkaloids and phenols (Momoh et al., 2015). Saponins and hydrochyanide were also found to be present (Evong et al., 2011).

1.2       Aims And Objectives

The aim of this study is to determine the qualitative and quantitative contents of Alkaloid and Saponin in bitter leaf.

The following are the objectives of this research.

• To determine the quality of alkaloid and saponin in bitter leaf.
• To determine the quantity of alkaloid and saponin in bitter leaf.

1.3       JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY Since the use of plants in traditional medicine is becoming popular, Vernonia amygdalinaare popular in traditional medicine practices thus this study will attempt to extract and tests for active compound in these plants so as to ascertain whether the claims made by traditional healers are pertaining to the healing potentials of these plants are true.

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE SCREENING OF GLIRICIDIA SEPIUM FOR ALKALOIDS, FLAVONOIDS AND PHENOLS

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE SCREENING OF GLIRICIDIA SEPIUM FOR ALKALOIDS, FLAVONOIDS AND PHENOLS

CHAPTER ONE

1.0       INTRODUCTION

Medicinal properties of plants always have interested people since ancient times. Different cultures around the world have a variety of medicinal traditions that include the use of plants and other plant products in curing different diseases [1]. A report of the World Health Organization tells that 80% of the world population mainly rely on traditional therapies which involve the use of plant extracts or their active substances [2]. Plant products remain the principal source of pharmaceutical drugs and agents used in traditional medicine [3]. With about half a million plants around the world, medicinal plants have a promising future [4].

Medicinal plants are considered as a rich resource of ingredients which can be used in drug development including pharmacopoeial, non- pharmacopoeial, or synthetic drugs [5]. The modern pharmaceutical industry itself still relies largely on the diversity of secondary metabolites in plants and secondary metabolites, of which at least 12,000 have been isolated; a number estimated to be less than 10% of the total [4].

In spite of enormous advances of modern scientific medicine, traditional medicine is still the primary form to treat diseases of majority of people in developing countries, even among those to whom western medicine is available, the number of people using one form or another of complementary of alternative medicine is rapidly increasing worldwide.

According to WHO (World Health Organisation) it was estimated that about 80% of population depends on the medicinal plants for their primary health care needs, even though the allopathic medicine is available. These kinds of changes may have deep impact on the safety and efficacy of the naturally originated drugs in the market.  Recent knowledge on the natural therapy which can overcome the side effects of allopathic medicine the current therapy is moving towards the natural therapy. The natural therapy includes treatment with medicinal plants, herbs etc.

At present no drug is proven to be effective without side effects. Major part of population in the country depends on medicinal plants for health care. Research teams in pharmaceutical fields are being focussed on the medicinal plants to separate and elute the principle compound from the plant, which helps for treating the diseases.

Gliricidia sepium belongs to the family Papilionaceae is a tree having large sizes, tall heights, large girths and seeds in pots. Gliricidia literally means “Rat poison”. Generally the trees survive and grow well under a wide range of climatic and adaptic conditions. Entire parts of tree-barks, roots, leaves etc. have been reported to be useful ethno medicinally [3]. Aqueous and organic extracts of plants have been used as wound-dressing, treatment of dysentery, mosquitoes repellant, fumigants [4], antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral as well as CNS depressant [5]. Plant parts have been a source of herbal medicine which has been shown to be  effective and about 80% of population depend on their use as primary health care [6].

Phytochemical screening is a method which exposes or reveals certain components or properties readily available in plants for bio-activity or ethno-medical applications. Plant  based antimicrobials has enormous therapeutic potential as they can serve the purpose with lesser side effects that are often associated with synthetic antimicrobials [7] Thus it is anticipated that phytochemical with adequate antibacterial efficiency can be used for the treatment of bacterial infections [8]. Antioxidants and antimicrobial properties of various extracts from many plants have recently been of great interest in both research and in food industry, because of their possible use as natural additives to replace synthetic antioxidants and antimicrobials with natural ones [9] Thus medicinal plants play an important role in the development of newer drugs because of their effectiveness, less side effects and relatively low cost when compared with synthetic drugs [10] The present study aims in exploring the phytochemical constituents, antibacterial and antifungal properties of the crude leaf extracts of Gliricidia sepium (L).

Gliricidia sepium known as Agunmaniye (in yoruba), Madre de Cacao (local) is a medium-size, semi-deciduous tree that typically grows to 10 m (33 ft) (occasionally reaching 15 m (50 ft)) in height, with a broad canopy (Nazli et al., 2011). According to the Agroforestry Database in 2009 and to De Boer et al (2005), G. sepium (Agunmaniye) has been shown to have high antifungal activity. G. sepium contains various phytochemicals like flavonoids, sterols, alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, saponins,(Sahin et al, 2004) medicarpin, coumarin, and coumaric acid have been isolated and characterized from the plant that showed antifungal and antibacterial properties (Jose and Reddy, 2010).

Phytcohemicals such as flavonoids, effectively controls fungal pathogen such as Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Terreros and Adriana., 2009). Medicarpin increases the release of phytoalexins (Soby et al., 2006) which is released by plants to combat pathogenic infection (Hasegawa et al., 2010). Coumarin and coumaric acids both prevent the entrance of nutrients into a fungal cell (Geweelly, 2009) thus resulting in the fungus’s cell lysis or death (Alvim et al., 2005). Saponins causes loss of membrane integrity (Zhang and Xu, 2006) and is lethal to fungal pathogens (De Lucca et al., 2006)

1.2       Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to carry out a qualitative and quantitative screening of Gliricidia sepium for alkaloids, flavonoids and phenols

1.3       Objectives of the Study

1. The determine the qualitative screening of Gliricidia sepium for alkaloids, flavonoids and phenols
2. To determine the quantitative screening of Gliricidia sepium for alkaloids, flavonoids and phenols

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE SCREENING OF ANACARDIUM OCCIDENTALE (CASHEW) LEAVES FOR ALKALOIDS, FLAVONOIDS AND PHENOLS

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE SCREENING OF ANACARDIUM OCCIDENTALE (CASHEW) LEAVES FOR ALKALOIDS, FLAVONOIDS AND PHENOLS

CHAPTER ONE

1.0       INTRODUCTION

Plants are important in our everyday existence as they provided us with food for nourishments, the oxygen we breathe and serve as raw materials for many industrial and domestic products such as; food, clothes, foot wears and many others (Abulude, Ogunkoya, & Akinjagunla , 2010). In addition to serving humanity, plants also help in the provision of shelter, preventing and curing ailments (Tipu, Akhtar & Raja, 2006). Plant kingdom is a treasure house of potential drugs and in recent years there has been an increasing awareness about the importance of medicinal plants. Drugs from the plants are easily available, less expensive, safe, and efficient and rarely have side effects (Tipu, Akhtar & Raja, 2006).

Medicinal plants represent rich source of antimicrobial agents, thus, they are used in different countries as a good source of many potent and powerful drugs (Srivastava. Lambert  & Vietmeyer, 1996). According to the world health organization (WHO, 2017) a medicinal plant is any plant which contains substances that can be used for therapeutic purpose in one or more of its organs or substances which are precursors for the synthesis of useful drugs. The most important of these bioactive constituents of plants are steroids, terpenoids, carotenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins and glycosides.

The plant parts used includes; the root, leaves, stem, bark, flower, exudates, fruits, twigs and modified plant organs. Medicinal plants have been of age long remedies for human diseases because they contain components of therapeutic value. Plant species have been used in the formulation of various proprietary medicines and it is therefore important to determine the active chemical components of such plants in order to develop more effective drugs (Mustapha & Hafsat, 2007).

Anacardium occidentale L. (Cashew plant) is a tropical evergreen tree that produces the cashew seed apple. It is said to originate in Latin America, specifically north-eastern Brazil (Mustapha & Hafsat, 2007). Its water resistant wood is used for boats and ferries, while the resin, in addition to having industrial uses, is used as an expectorant, cough remedy and insect repellent. Anacardium occidentale (Linn.) is an important tropical nut tree that belongs to the family Anacardiaceae, which includes about 75 genera and 700 species among which the well economically known ones are mango and pistachio (Mustapha & Hafsat, 2007).

The leaves and bark of cashew have bactericidal and germicidal activities (Olife,  Jolaoso, & Onwualu, 2013). They also help to stop dry secretion, increases libido, and reduce fever, blood sugar and pressure (Olife,  Jolaoso, & Onwualu, 2013).. In western Nigeria young leaves are used for arthritis and other inflammatory conditions. In some parts of Nigeria, bark, roots and leaves are traditionally used for the treatment of numerous diseases such as; allergy, cough, stomach ache, diarrhea, skin infections and others (Olife,  Jolaoso, & Onwualu, 2013).

 In the Southeastern part of Nigeria, the leaf extracts is used to bath malaria patients. An infusion of the stem bark and leaves of the plant is used as a remedy for tooth ache and sore gums while the astringent bark is given for severe diarrhea and thrush. The cashew apple has higher vitamin C content than oranges and mangos thus; they are used in the treatment of cough and scurvy (Olife,  Jolaoso, & Onwualu, 2013). Cashew apple is also anti-scorbutic, astringent and diuretic, and is used for cholera and kidney troubles .

The cashew kernel (nuts)  are rich in protein, carbohydrate, fat (heart friendly monounsaturated fatty acid), oil, manganese, magnesium, zinc, potassium, copper and iron for preventing deficiency diseases and serving as antioxidants (Chabi, Sina, Adoukonou-Sagbadja, Ahoton, Roko, Saidou, Adeoti, Ahanchede & Baba-Moussa, (2014).

Industrially, the bark contains an acrid sap of thick brown resin, which becomes black on exposure to air and is used as indelible ink in marking and printing linens. The resin is also used as a varnish, a preservative for fishnets and a flux for solder metals. The stem also yields an amber-colored gum, which is partly soluble in water. This gum is used as an adhesive (for woodwork panels, plywood, bookbinding), partly because it has insecticidal properties (Olife,  Jolaoso, & Onwualu, 2013).

1.2       Objectives of the Study

Broadly stated, the purpose of this work is to investigate/assess the Qualitative And Quantitative Screening Of Anacardium Occidentale (Cashew) Leaves For Alkaloids, Flavonoids And Phenols

Specifically, this work investigated:

• The proximate constituents of cashew leaf and
• The qualitative and quantitative screening for  phytochemicals in cashew leaf such as Alkaloids, Flavonoids And Phenols