Showing posts with label Science Laboratory Technology. Show all posts

Monday, 10 April 2023

EVALUATION OF NUTRITIONAL AND ANTI-NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF MANGO (Mangifera indica) SEED KERNEL

EVALUATION OF NUTRITIONAL AND ANTI-NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF MANGO (Mangifera indica) SEED KERNEL

AbstractMango (Mangifera indica Linn.) is one of the most important tropical fruits in the world. During processing of mango, by-products such as peel and kernel are generated. Kernels take up about 17-22% of the fruit. The aim of this work is to determine the proximate and anti-nutritional composition of M. indica seed kernels. Proximate analysis such as , crude fat, crude protein, crude ash, crude fibre and carbohydrates are as follows: crude fat; 14.80% ash; 2.62%, crude protain; 10.06%, crude lipid; 14.80%, carbohydrate: 70.12%.The result shows that M. indica seed kernels is rich in protein and carbohydrate. The anti-nutritional composition of the seed are as follows oxalate; 1.49g, phytate 1.44g and hydrogen cyanide; 0 g .This shows that the kernel seed has low anti-nutrients content. Therefore, mango seed is a nutritional promising seed.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Mango is a very common tropical fruit usually found in Southern Asia, especially in Eastern India, China, Burma, Andaman Islands and Central America. Mangoes belong to the genus Angifera, consisting of numerous species of tropical fruiting trees in the flowering plant family Anacardiaceae. It is cultivated and grown vastly in many tropical regions and widely distributed in the world. The mango is indigenous to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia (Fowomola, 2010). Cultivated in many tropical regions and distributed widely in the world. It is one of the most extensively exploited fruits for food, juice, flavor, fragrance and color and a common ingredient in new functional foods often called superfruits. Its leaves are ritually used as floral decorations at weddings and religious ceremonies. Mango trees (Mangifera indica) reach 35 – 40 m in height, with a crown radius of 10 m. The leaves are evergreen, alternate, simple, 15 – 35 cm long and 6 – 16 cm broad; when the leaves are young they are orange-pink, rapidly changing to a dark glossy red, then dark green as they mature. The fruit takes from 3 – 6 months to ripen. The ripe fruit is variable in size and color, and may be yellow, orange, red or green to reduce the problem of waste disposal from mango production.

Mango seed is a single flat oblong seed that can be fibrous or hairy on the surface, depending on the cultivar. Inside the seed coat 1 – 2 mm thick is a thin lining covering a single embryo, 4 – 7 cm long, 3 – 4 when ripe, depending on the cultivar. When ripe, the unpeeled fruit gives off a distinctive resinous sweet smell. In its center is a single flat oblong seed that can be fibrous or hairy on the surface, depending on the cultivar. In 2008 Thailand is the third biggest mango producer, with a 2.5 millions of tons after India (13.6 millions of tons) and China (4.2 millions of tons) . In Thailand, mangos are the most popular fruits. There are several varieties grown in Thailand, “Nam Dawk Mai” and “Ok Long” are the favorites choices as dessert fruit. Keow Savoey is sweet and has a powdery texture, while Ma-muang Rat is predominantly sour with a hint of sweet. Ripe mangoes are processed into frozen mango products, canned products, dehydrated products, and ready-to-serve beverages (Ramteke and Eipeson, 1997). After consumption or industrial processing of the fruits, considerable amounts of mango seeds are discarded as waste (Table 1.) (Puravankara et al., 2000); they account for 35%–55% of the fruit (Bhalerao et al., 1989), depending on the variety. Actual figures on the quantity of mango waste generated commercially are not readily available. Therefore, the utilization of mango by-products especially mango seed may be an economical way cm wide, and 1 cm thick. Mango seed consists of a tenacious coat enclosing the kernel. The seed content of different varieties of mangoes ranges from 9% to 23% of the fruit weight (Palaniswamy et al., 1974) and the kernel content of the seed ranges from 45.7% to 72.8% (Hemavathy et al., 1988). Variation in characteristic yield may be due to the differences in variety of plant, cultivation climate, ripening stage, the harvesting time of the seeds kernels and the extraction method used.

The amino acids content of mango seed kernel are demonstrated in Table 4. Data in this table showed that valine and phenylalanine achieved higher values compared to the FAO/WHO reference (World Health Organization, 1985) followed by therionine, lysine and tyrosine which were somewhat equaled to the reference. On the other hand, arginine and glutamic acids revealed the highest values of all non essential amino acids in mango seed kernel content. The presence of antioxidant vitamins such as vitamin C, E and A suggests that mango seed could be used as an alternative source of these vitamins. Antioxidant vitamins have been reported to reduce oxidative processes which are known to be vital in the initiation mixture which fails to form soap when blended with NaOH. The composition of unsaponifiable matter of vegetable oils including tocopherols, sterols and squalene is of great importance for oil characteristics and stability (Sim et al., 1972). The major saturated fatty acids in mango seed kernels oil were stearic and palmitic acids and the main unsaturated fatty acids are oleic and linoleic acids. The comparison of the composition in fatty acids of mango seed kernel oil with that of vegetable oils indicates that this plant is rich in acids stearic and oleic. Accordingly, mango seed kernel oil is more stable than many other vegetable oils rich in unsaturated fatty acids. Such oils seem to be suitable for blending with vegetable oils, stearin manufacturing, confectionery industry or/and in the soap industry.

Antinutritional factors are primarily associated with compounds or substances of natural or synthetic origin, which interfere with the absorption of nutrients, and act to reduce nutrient intake, digestion, and utilization and may produce other adverse effects. Antinutrients are frequently related to plant-based, raw or vegan diets and are naturally synthesized in plants ( Gemede and Ratta 2014). Some of the common symptoms exhibited by a large number of antinutrients in the body can be nausea, bloating, headaches, rashes, nutritional deficiencies, etc. On the other hand, such chemical compounds can be evidently advantageous to humankind when consumed wisely. In fact, plants, for their own defense, primarily use antinutrients. Although people’s sensitivity to antinutrients widely differs adequate food processing is initially recommended to reduce antinutritional factors (Essack et al., 2017). A person cannot eliminate antinutrients once they have been introduced to the body. Eliminating and reintroducing specific foods that contain antinutrients can clear the correlation between symptoms and effects on human health. In this regard, the biochemical effects of the anti-nutritional factors are an object of research interest Most of the secondary metabolites, acting as anti-nutrients, elicit very harmful biological responses, while some of them are widely applied in nutrition and as pharmaco-logically-active agents ( Soetan and Oyewole 2009) .

1.2 Statement of Research Problem

Soaring food prices have triggered and increase in hunger worldwide, especially in Sub-Sahara African countries like Nigeria. The increase in prices of food has been attributed to several factors that include production shortfalls due to drought and flood, impact of climate change: increased demand for biofuel: emerging consumption habits of fast growing economies of some nations as well as trade policies to stabilize the food market crisis (FAO, 2008). According to the WHO (2013), malnutrition is one of the leading causes of death globally. It is well established that majority of people in developing countries depend mainly on cereal grains as their staple food due to limited income and high prices of animals foods. The essence of this work is to evaluate the proximate composition, mineral content and anti-nutrients present in Mangifera indica seed kernel.

1.3 Justification

The world population, and in particular countries in Africa, will continue to depend on seeds and grains (Wrigley et al., 2004). With an estimate of 30% of the total population of Africa suffering from chronic hunger and malnutrition, looking into ways of salvaging food crisis remains a challenge to all stakeholders in and outside the region. It is encouraging that conventional indigenous fruit seed such as Mangifera indica seed, (Jideani et al., 1996) have continued to receive increasing attention within the last ten years as revealed by the work done by different researchers. The present study is prompted by the claim of some nutritionist that Mangifera indica seed could have great nutritional benefits. This work was undertaken to investigate the proximate composition and anti-nutrients present in Mangifera indica seed kernel.

1.4 Aim and Objective

Aim

The aim of this work is to determine the proximate and anti-nutritional composition of Mangifera indica seed kernel

Objective

1. To evaluate the proximate composition of Mangifera indica seed kernel.

2. To carry out the anti- nutritional composition of the seed kernel.

Monday, 27 March 2023

PRODUCTION OF FACE CLEANSING GEL USING TURMERIC, HONEY, GLYCERIN AND EUCALYPTUS OIL

PRODUCTION OF FACE CLEANSING GEL USING TURMERIC, HONEY, GLYCERIN AND EUCALYPTUS OIL

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

Medicinal plants have provided a reliable source for preparation of new drugs as well as combating diseases, from the dawn of civilization. The extensive survey of the literature revealed that turmeric, honey, glycerin and eucalyptus oil are highly regarded as a universal panacea in the herbal medicine with a wide spectrum of pharmacological activities. These plants and natural products are distributed throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world and are widely used for treatment of different ailment and beauty products such as face cleansing gels which is used for skin treatment (William, 2012).

The skin is the largest organ of the body, accounting for about 15% of total adult body weight. It performs many vital functions, including protection against external, physical, chemical and biological assailants, as well as prevention of excess water loss from the body and role in thermoregulation. The skin is continuous, with the mucous membranes lining the body’s surface. To keep skin healthy, clear, glossy, a balanced nutrition is required. Apart from the balanced nutrition, hormonal changes especially during puberty in both sexes cause many changes in the body. Among various changes, dryness, roughness and pimples are most common. The pathogenesis of this are bacterial over growth and inflammation. To overcome this problem the use herbal remedies such as face cleansing gels from natural products such as turmeric, honey, glycerin and eucalyptus oil is required (Sanju et al., 2017).

Herbal face cleansing gel alleviate age- related changes and neutralize environmental attack by removing skin cells on the surface and stimulating cell growth in the sub-epidermal layer. As grow older, rate of cell turnover slows down dramatically. Majorly dead cell found on facial skin surface hang around much longer, a fact that tends to emphasize those fine lines and can make complexion dull and lifeless. To remain healthy and of good appearance, the skin surface requires frequent cleansing to remove grin, sebus and other secretions, dead cells, crusts and applied make-ups. By removing these dead skin cells exfoliating skin- whether physically with scrub using herbal products containing vitamins, antioxidants, antiseptics and anti-aging properties which help to deep cleanse the skin and make it glow and attractive(Sanju et al., 2017).

1.1 Statement of the problem

Dirt found on the skin consists of sweat, sebum and its break down products, dead skin cells, residues of cosmetics and personal care products applied to the skin, dust, and other environmental impurities carried in the air(Sanju et al., 2017). Most of these compounds are not soluble in water, so washing the skin with simple water would not be sufficient to remove dirt.2. The general purpose for skin cleansing is to reduce these dirt using skin cleansing products which contain surfactants that are capable of emulsifying water-insoluble ingredients into micelles that can be easily washed away from the skin. Unfortunately, many skin cleansers do cause changes in the skin’s structure and barrier function, leading to irritation, dryness, redness, and itching; as cleansing products are primarily based on anionic surfactants, approaches have beendeveloped to decrease the tendency of these surfactants to damage skin proteins.

In order to maintain the skin barrier during cleansing, itis best to maintain the endogenous lipids and the native skinstructure. The addition of polymeric species that interactwith the surfactants to modern cleanser formulations createsless aggressive cleansers. Therefore this study helps to formulate face cleansing gel from turmeric, honey, glycerin and eucalyptus oil which has no side effect on the skin.

1.2 Justification of the Study

The use of synthetic beauty products with several side effects such as itching, offensive odour, irritation among others are common today, which have undermine the general purpose of cleansing agents thus giving rise to the need for a more body friendly products with no side effects. Therefore is study on the production of face cleansing gel using turmeric, honey, glycerin and eucalyptus oil is justifiable as this provides to solution to the problems created by using synthetic beauty products.

1.3 Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to produce face cleansing gel using turmeric, honey, glycerin and eucalyptus oil.

1.4 Objectives of the study

To determine the physical properties of the face cleansing gel such as colour, odour and consistency.
To determine the pH level of the face cleansing gel
To determine the spreadability and washability properties of the product.

Tuesday, 28 February 2023

PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING AND PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF THE ROOT, LEAVES, FLOWERS AND LATEX JUICE OF Calotropis Procera

PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING AND PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF THE ROOT, LEAVES, FLOWERS AND LATEX JUICE OF Calotropis Procera

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Plant derived substances have obtained greater attention in the recent years to prevent and cure human diseases as they are considered to be more biofriendly. It is generally estimated that over 6000 plants in Africa are in use in traditional folk and herbal medicine, representing about 75% of the medicinal needs of the third world countries (Veerachari and Bopaiah, 2011). According to Okoli et al (2007), traditional society in Africa has always used herbs to promote healing. A large body of evidence has accumulated to demonstrate the promising potentials of medicinal plants used in various traditional, complementary and alternate systems of treatments of human diseases (Alam, 2008).

The World Health Organisation in 1991 estimated that 70% of population from many countries are using traditional medicine to cure various ailments. Therefore, the useful products obtained from plants directly or indirectly, demonstrate their importance to man. Plants serve as a source of food (Katsayal et al., 2004; Kawo, 2007), medicinal product (Kawo et al., 2009), energy (Kawo, 2010) and shelter to man and his livestock (Ogunkunle and Oladele, 2004). Calotropis Procera is a weed plant commonly known as “apple of Sodom”. The plant belongs to Apocynaceae family which includes latex bearing plants. It is a small to medium-sized shrub, up to 5.5 m high and occasionally branchless to a height of 2.5 m. The bark is fibrous, scaly, deeply fissured when old, grey to light brown. All parts of the plant exude white latex when cut or broken. It is locally known as ‘tumfafiya’ in Hausa, its other local names are madar, akanda and arks (Noatay, 2005). The Yorubas of western Nigeria call it ‘Bomubomu’ and the Kanuri of northwestern Nigeria know it as ‘Kayou’. It is a plant of the dry savanna and other arid areas, mostly anthropogene occurring around villages (Aliyu, 2006). The only two species of this genus are Calotropis gigantea and Calotropis Procera. The main difference between the two is that while Calotropis gigantea has white flowers, Calotropis Procera has pinkish white flowers (Noatay, 2005).

In the last few decades, Calotropis Procera is extensively studied for its medicinal properties by advanced scientific techniques and a variety of bioactive compounds have been isolated from the different parts of the plant and were analyzed pharmacologically. The plant is reported for analgesic activity, antimicrobial activity, antioxidant activity, anti-pyretic activity, insecticidal activity, cytotoxicity activity, hepatoprotective activity, pregnancy interceptive properties, purgative properties, procoagulant activity and wound healing activity. The medicinal properties of this plant represent it as a valuable source of medicinal compound (Kumar et al. 2016).

Different parts of Calotropis Procera have been reported to exhibit ethnomedicinal and nutritional properties. In addition, preparations from the latex with honey are used as antibodies and also in the treatment of toothaches and cough (Aworh et al., 2004). The leaf extract, chopped leaf and latex of Calotropis Procera have shown great promise as both in-vivo and invitro nematicides (Anver and Alam, 2012). Awune and Debray (2000) have earlier reported that though the leaf of Calotropis Procera is not known to be eaten by man as food, it is however taken as purgative and diuretic in Ivory Coast.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Calotropis Procera is a plant which is considered as a traditional means of curing or treating some ailments such as fever, rheumatism, indigestion, cold, eczema and diarrhoea but there has not been enough analysis on its phytochemical and proximate constituents in order to ascertain if it can be used for development of drugs as it is not taken as food into the body. This study therefore, will bring about knowledge on its chemical constituents as well as other chemical benefits to enable good use of the plant.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this research work is to carry out phytochemical screening and proximate analysis of the root, leaves, flowers and latex juice of Calotropis Procera.

The Objectives are:

Extraction from the various parts of the plant.
To perform phytochemical screening on the various extracts of the plant.
To determine the proximate composition (moisture content, ash content, crude lipid, fat, protein and carbohydrate).
To compare the parts statistically.

1.5 Significance of the Study

This study is important because, its knowledge will give enough information on what the plant contains and possibly serve as a medium for production of medicinal products using the plant as a raw material.

1.6 Scope of the Study

This research work focuses on the phytochemical (flavonoids, anthocyanidins, steroids, saponins, anthraquinones, tannins, cardiac glycosides and alkaloids) and proximate analysis of flower latex juice, leaves and root of calotropis Procera plant.

Tuesday, 3 January 2023

ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF MICROORGANISM ASSOCIATED WITH WHITE AND YELLOW GARRI AND THEIR SUSCEPTIBILITY PATTERN TO BOTH ANTIBIOTICS AND ANTIFUNGAL AGENTS

ABSTRACT

This study assessed the microorganisms associated with white and yellow garri and their susceptibility patterns to both antibiotics and antifungal agent. The study specifically isolate the bacteria present in white and yellow garri, after which the susceptibility pattern of the isolates to antibiotics and antifungal agents was determined. The result shows that the microbial count of white and yellow types of garri samples obtained from the market are within the limits of 10^-2 to 10^-4cfug^-1 and are contaminated with coliforms and fungi to about the same order. The study also reveals that the garri samples were contaminated by diverse microbial spp mainly of Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Klebsiella and Micrococcus luteus. The bacteria and fungi isolated have different levels of antibiotics and fungi resistance to antibiotics and antifungal agents. The presence of susceptibility of bacterials and fungi in garri can pose a public health hazard when transferred to humans by consuming garri contaminated with the organisms; thus it is recommended people especially students should be encouraged to reduce intake of garri without thorough thermal treatment to prevent food infections or intoxications. There is need for garri processors and retailers to maintain stricter personal hygiene and food safety consciousness in terms of using clean covered transparent containers as garri retailing containers so as to reduce direct and indirect contaminations by air-borne droplets and spores of the isolates in dust and air.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Garri is a traditional cassava flakes; in simple terms it is flour made from cassava (Mannihot esculenta) that is popular among the people of West Africa (Akindele et al., 2018). The production involves peeling of the cassava tuber, soaking in water for about 6 days followed by grinding into a pulp. Afterwards, the pulp is placed in a spongy bag under compression in order to strain out the water content before frying in a calabash-like pot (Adeyemo et al., 2018). The resulting flake from frying is known as Garri which can be used in processing various food delicacies as well as taken raw like cornflakes. This ready-to-eat property of Garri makes it a widely acceptable quick-fix meal (Orji et al., 2016). It should be noted that during the process of manufacturing, the pulp gets exposed to microbiological contamination. However, during the fermentation period, lactic acid bacteria involved in the natural fermentation is suggested to have antimicrobial properties that lower counts of the possible pathogenic bacterial contaminant (Adeyemo et al., 2018).

Lactic acid bacteria are a group of gram positive, catalase negative, non-spore forming and non-motile bacteria that produces lactic acid as a major end product of glucose fermentation. They are widely grouped into three: obligate homofermentative (for example Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus salivarus), facultative heterofermentative (for example Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus curvatus) and obligate heterofermentative (Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus reuteri) based on their sugar fermentation profile (Buddhiman et al., 2008). Consequently, within LAB group, Lactobacillus have been identified as one of the most important in traditional fermented food that are mainly used in functional food production and as a starter culture in food fermentation. They are able to utilize the nutrient in the food matrix for fermentation, producing byproducts such as organic acids, aromatic compounds and antimicrobial peptides termed bacteriocin that limits growth of pathogenic organisms (Mamta et al., 2017).

Although there are several pathogenic bacteria which are food contaminants (Frantamico et al., 2007) that can also be found in garri, Escherichia coli is of great concern (Fossi and Ndjouenkeu, 2017). This is due to the fact that one of the most important causative agents of diarrhoeal disease has mainly been Escherichia coli (Frantamico et al., 2007) and the process of handling garri during production predisposes it to contamination by E. coli. Furthermore, it has been a serious public health issue worldwide; irrespe of the source of transmission either environmental or clinical E. coli are always of great health concern (Steven and David, 2014).

Thus, beneficial organisms such as Lactobacillus with documented safety profile possessing antagonistic potential against pathogens have received increased attention for their possible usage as probiotics in place of antibiotics (Servin, 2004). This study aims to isolate lactic acid bacteria within the garri matrix that has inhibitory effect on E. coli isolated from clinical settings.

1.1 Aims and objectives

1.1.1 Aim

To access the microorganism associated with white and yellow garri and their susceptibility patterns to both antibiotics and antifungal agent.

1.1.2 Objectives

To isolate the bacteria present in white and yellow garri sold in Nasarawa market and to identify the fungi present in the garri sample
To determine the susceptibility pattern of microorganism to both antibiotics and antifungal agents.

Wednesday, 30 November 2022

GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIA (GNB) ISOLATED FROM USED HOME-MADE AND SURGICAL NOSE/FACE MASK

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Micro-organisms can spread easily, and the air itself (Shivakumar et al., 2017). Bioaerosols formed from specific equipment usages, these are invisible to the naked eye and can remain in the environment as aerosols for long periods of time. These aerosols may be inhaled into the lungs to migrate to the alveoli or may come in contact with the skin or mucous membranes (Shivakumar et al., 2017). Aerosol that are 100 micrometer or more in diameter are thought to be too large to be inhaled; however, they may still come into contact with the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes or may settle down on the exposed hair and clothing. Thus, diseases like pneumonia, influenza, hepatitis, may be transmitted with skin and eye (Shivakumar et al., 2017). Since masks protect the mucous membranes of the nose and mouth, they must be worn wherever there is a potential for splashing, saliva or body fluids, or where there is a probability of the inhalation of aerosols with a potential for transmission of airborne pathogens.

Nose mask is an essential infection control barrier, a very important subject in the prevention of infectious diseases. Surgical masks are fluid- repellent paper filter masks and are suitable for both surgical and non-surgical individuals procedures that generate aerosols.. This three-ply material is made up from a melt blown material placed between non-woven fabrics. The melt-blown material acts as the filter that stops microbes from entering or exiting the mask. Most surgical and home made masks feature pleats/folds commonly three pleated are used allowing the user to expand the mask so it covers from the nose and under the chin (Baratam, 2014). According to the CDC guidelines, surgical nose and home made mask is a personal protective barrier (CDC, 2013). The use of surgical nose masks is synonymous with the use by the public and is so deeply ingrained that to question it would have been unheard of until recently (Lipp, 2013). Unlike the white coats, the filtration abilities of a mask begins to decline after approximately 20 minutes with exposure to moisture and the external surface of a mask gets contaminated by the aerosols present in the environment and becomes a source of cross contamination and thus requires proper disposal, but unfortunately,local resident of AkungbaAkoko, Ondo state Nigeria dispose the used nose/ face mask indiscriminately and reused the nose mask, this create a false sense of protection against various diseases causative agent. This research work is an eye opener to the inherent danger of reused nose/face mask.

A surgical nose mask is a single-use device designed to retain infective agents present in the exhaled breath. Surgical masks are often referred to as face masks, but not all commercially available face masks are regulated as surgical masks a very good example is the home made nose mask. Surgical masks are made to act as barrier to droplets or aerosols while surgical respirators are made to filter out airborne particles including viruses and bacteria. Surgical masks and surgical respirators are marked as medical devices. For example, N95 means that the mask provides the intended effectiveness of filtering 95% of particles with a mass median diameter of 0.3 micrometers(Lipp, 2013).

Non-woven fabric i.eHome made mask, has better bacteria filtration efficiency and air permeability, while remaining less slippery than the woven cloth (Henneberry, 2020). It is most commonly made of polypropylene, or, in combination with polyethylene of PET polyester. The filtration level of a mask will therefore depend on the types of the non-woven fabrics used for its manufacture and these will vary according to the application. According to the standards surgical masks are made to be effective at filtering out particles such as bacteria above 1 micron.

The home made nose mask are nose mask that is hand weaving or swing machine made nose mask, made from different fabric of layered cloth, a, mechanical barrier for inhalation of Bioaerosols. Both Home-made Nose mask (HNM) and Surgical Nose mask (SNM) are effective in preventing the transmission of infectious diseases like influenza virus and Corona virus (Cowling et al., 2019). The level of protection of masks against infectious diseases depends on multiple factors such as the appropriate usage and fit of the mask, level of exposure, compliance, complementary interventions (such as hands washing), early use , as well as the type of mask (Maclintyre, 2014). A recent study indicated that surgical face masks could, in a real-life situation, prevent the transmission of common cold and corona viruses from symptomatic individuals (Greenhalgh, 2020).

A recent study indicated that surgical face masks could in a real-life situation, prevent the transmission of common cold and corona viruses from symptomatic individuals (Greenhalgh, 2020). The WHO recommends that PPE masks should be used based on the risk of exposure (e.g., type of activity) and the transmission dynamics of the pathogen (e.g., contact, droplet, or aerosol). The use of masks may give users a false sense of protection, thus encouraging risk-taking. Although the effectiveness of reusable face masks is unclear, this is one of the reason that necessitate this research work, a response from on the short age of single-use masks states that reusable masks do offer some form of protection .

However, protocols on how to use reusable masks alongside complementary interventions should be developed to increase their affectivity in protecting against infection studied the effectiveness of homemade mask in blocking transmission of the microorganisms in healthy volunteers. Generally, the effectiveness of a cloth (Home-made) masks would depend on the fit, fineness of the cloth and the number of layers indicating that there is potential to design more effective fabrics (Home-made)masks. Most single-use face masks have an inbuilt filter,allowing for the insertion of a filter in a fabrics (Home-made), may increase their filtration capacities. There are concerns that use of masks may give general public a false sense of protection, thus encouraging risk-taking. Protocols should be developed on how to use and clean reusable masks alongside complementary interventions frequent to increase their affectivity in protecting against infection.

1.2 Statement of Problem

During the current coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the use of home-made and surgical nose/face masks has become increasingly recommended or even mandatory in community settings outside hospitals and care facilities (. Nose/Face masks are most often used to prevent respiratory droplet transmission and reduce transmission from people infected with respiratory viruses to non-infected people (Shivakumar et al., 2017).The efficacy of face masks against different airborne transmissions is now questionable as there is a general assumption that both home-made and surgical nose/face mask may be subject to bacteria infection and unsafe to use due to over-use or improper usage of the mask. In fact, the human saliva contains 100 million bacterial cells per milliliter and harbors a range of pathobionts, including Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, Klebsiellapneumoniae, Neisseria, Prevotella, and Veillonella spp. (Gender et al., 2013). This has become a thing of concern thus, this study becomes necessary to examine the Gram Negative Bacteria (GNB) isolated from used home-made and surgical nose / face mask.

1.3 Objective of the Study

The objective of this study is investigate gram negative bacteria isolated from used home-made and surgical nose/face mask.

Specifically the study will

Isolate and identify and determine the characteristics of the isolated bacteria
Determine the biochemical characteristics of the isolated bacteria
Identify the gram negative bacteria isolated from the used home-made / surgical nose / face mask.

Sunday, 27 November 2022

AN ASSESSMENT OF BACKGROUND RADIATION LEVEL OF SOME SELECTED MINING PROCESSING IN NASARAWA

ABSTRACT

Human is exposed to background radiation in their environment with or without their consent; and the exposure to natural background radiation is an unpreventable event on earth. The assessment was conducted for the determination of the amount of background radiation revel of some selected mining processing in Nasarawa. This was carried out using RDS-200 universal survey meter. The assessment was done on the mining processing ranges from 0.501msv/yr to 0.758msv/yr. for the indoor reading and 0.139msv/yr to 0.267msv/yr for the outdoor reading. The radiation levels in these selected mining processing were found to be within the safe limit. These results would serve as a baseline upon which another exposures would be assessed and in the future serve as reference for dosimetry and decontamination in situation of radiation poisoning of these mining processing.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Human exposure to background radiation is unavoidable. This is because we live in a “sea of radiation”. It is omnipresence nature in the atmosphere, terrestrial deposits and in our body makes it a unique area of assessing energy in our environment. Background Radiation is a long wavelength electromagnetic radiation that hits the earth uniformly from all direction. It represents energy left over from the “big bang” the explosion of the beginning of the universe. What makes it a background radiation is because of man’s environment most people often associate the word radiation with ionizing radiation (e.g as occurring in nuclear weapons, nuclear reaction) but it can also refer to electromagnetic radiation (i.e radio waves, infrared light, visible light and x-rays). This can also be ionizing radiation to acoustic radiation because energy radiate i.e. travels outwardly froth a source called an emitter in straight lines in all directions (Agba, 2016).

Natural Background radiation accounts for 80% of radiation source in our environment which includes cosmic radiation from the sun and outer space and consists of positives charged particles, form radioactive material found on earth surface as in rocks and soil as well as radiation in our bodies in form of element liker potassium 40. The first two sources mentioned as referred to as external sources of natural background radiation while the last is called the internal source of natural background radiation. The other 20% comes from the artificial background source like the nuclear power plants, nuclear weapon testing and medical procedures (x-rays and mammography) in medicine and dentistry (ICRP, 2020).

Radiation is classified in two forms based on energy level; the ionization form of radiation which is the high energy radiation capable of ionizing atoms. It includes Alpha Particles bête particles, gamma rays and neutrons. And the non-ionization form of radiation which is a low frequency and energy radiation. It includes ultraviolet rays, visible light microwaves, and radio waves.

Over the years the level of background radiation in our surrounding has grown significantly. A study conducted by Japan’s institute of radiological studies in 1977 shows that the increase in radiation level was due to nuclear power plant production. Other factors regarded as major contributors include nuclear reactor explosion mining activities, industrial waste and effluent from factories estimate of dose contribution in the environment shows that 85% of radiation dose received by man are derived from natural radionuclide while the remaining 15% comes from cosmic rays and nuclear process (IAEA, 2016).

In the year 2000, the average and the average background radiation for human being amounts to about 2.4 micro sievert per year (µSv/yr) and about 1µSv/yr comes from nuclear activities (UNCEAR, 2020). At sea level, the average cosmic radiation dose is about 26 mRem per year. At high elevation, the amount of atmosphere shielding cosmic rays decreases and thus the dose increases. Radioactive elements like uranium, thorium and atom which are the terrestrial emitting radio nuclides are also regarded as contributors to high level of background radiation (Ellwell, 2018). Radon for instance is a current health concern – radon gas formed from radioactive decay of natural uranium in the soil. It emits alpha radiation, raises from soil under houses and can build up in homes particularly well insulated homes (UNCEAR, 2020).

Exposure to radiation can cause severe damage to human biological system (Emeka, 2017). Although a dose of 25 Rems which is equivalent to 0.25mSv causes some detectable changes in blood, doses to near 100 Rems usually have no immediate effect. Dose above 100 Rems causes the first signs of nausea, vomiting, headache, some lost of white blood cells. Dose of 300 Rems on more cause temporary hair loss but also more significantly internal harm including damage to nerve cells and cells that line up the digestive tract (Agba, 2016). Severe loss of white blood cells which are the body defense system makes a radiation victim vulnerable to diseases. Radiation also reduces the blood platelets which aid blood clotting, so victims of radiation are vulnerable to hemorrhaging. Half of the people exposed to 450 Rems die and dose of 800 Rems are fatal. The main way of saving the cells of the body is to protect it from exposure to radiation. This is why radiation monitoring and measurement are quite essential in our society today (Hay, 2016).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

According to Agba et al., (2016), every person is exposed daily to variety of radiation whether he recognize it or not. This is due to the various activities in our immediate surroundings. In fact, the context of background radiation over the years has passed in silence especially in developing countries like ours Nigeria. If it is mentioned at all, it is mostly the theoretical possibilities that are highlighted and negligence in the study especially on it effect to man in his surrounding will continue to leave a threat to human existence. The study finds solution to question like; the various factors that lead to the variation in background radiation of different indoor surrounding of some selected mining processing in Nasarawa, the hazards of man’s continual exposure to radiation through different radiation emitting source and the possible protection and control measures to its exposure.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

1.3.1 Aim

The aim of this project is to measure the background radiation level of some selected mining processing in Nasarawa.

1.3.2 Objectives

In view of the aim of the study, the specific objective of the study will include:

To evaluate the amount of radiation present in mining processing in Nasarawa
To review the effects of long exposure to radiation
To create awareness of the possible danger posed by long exposure to radiation sources.

1.4 Justification of the Study

The limit of radiation exposure for non radiation workers is 1millisievert/yr while that for radiation workers is 20 millisievert average 5yrs according to the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). As such there is a need to know the amount of background radiation exposure in the mining processing from which the annual exposure in the tin shade can be calculated and compared with international limit started by the ICRP. Hence, there is the need to frequently and increasingly notify the public about the threat posed by radiation to health in general – also information derived from the study will therefore.

Provide database for information regarding management of background radiation level in mining processing.
Create more awareness on the danger posed by background radiation.
Serve as reference for further or subsequent research

1.5 Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will help in creating awareness of certain danger that comes with the background radiation to the workers in the selected mining processing in Nasarawa

1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Study

The study will focus on the assessment of the background radiation level of some selected mining processing in Nasarawa relative to the standard amount of absorbable radiation in order to determine the effect of background radiation to the general public. It is however limited due to the following challenges:

Insufficient finance to carry out the research work
Limited time
Poor cooperation by tin shade owners

THE USE OF LOCAL PIGMENT AND EXTENDER FOR THE FORMULATION AND PRODUCTION OF EMULSION PAINTS

THE USE OF LOCAL PIGMENT AND EXTENDER FOR THE FORMULATION AND PRODUCTION OF EMULSION PAINTS

ABSTRACT

This study uses local pigment and extender for the formulation and production of emulsion paints. The emulsion paint was produced using water, hibiscus flower, hexane, yellow oxide (colour), Bermacol, Acrylate, Deformer, Gernapour, Texanol and ammonia. The study found that the specific graphic of the emulsion paint was found to be 25kg/m³, the density was 23g/ml while viscosity is at 100m²/s and the drying time of the formulated emulsion paint was found to be between 10 – 13 minutes outside and 10 – 20 minutes inside. the study shows that there was a good compatibility between the pigment and the binder during the paint formulation, which accounts for the deeper colour and good opacity for the emulsion paint formulated. The formulated emulsion was also found to have moderate viscosity which accounts for good flow properties. These results have revealed that the emulsion paints formulated could be used as both indoor and outdoor coatings.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Painting is a unique human activity that have helped the human race to contribute significantly in earning a better livelihood and building a better and more beautified world for ourselves (Akinterinwa, et al, 2018). Paints simply means organic coatings applied to surfaces with the sole aim of imparting both protective and aesthetic functions. Paints and other pigments come in a variety of gloss levels which corresponds to the level of a pigment dispersed in a substance usually called a vehicle or binder, usually polymeric in nature,which adheres to the substrate. The vehicle (i.e the binder) is one of the most important ingredients in paint formulation because it is a film-forming material or oil (Gopalan et al, 2020).

Paint is a fluid, or semi-fluid material which may be applied to surfaces in relatively thin layers, and which changes to a solid coating with time. The change to a solid material may or may not be reversible, and may occur by evaporation of solvent by chemical reaction, or by a combination of the two. Paints usually consist of vehicle or binder, a pigment which contributes obscurities colour, hardness and bulk to the film, and a solvent or thinner which controls the consistency. Paint is basically classified into two, which are gloss paint and emulsion paint (Osemeahon and Dimas, 2013).

Gloss paints (oil-based paints) are paints that may be classified according to whether the drying mechanism is predominantly solvent evaporation, oxidation or some chemical reaction. Gloss paints which dry essentially by solvent evaporation, rely on a fairly hard resin as the vehicle. Paints which dry by oxidation, the vehicle is usually an oil or an oil-based varnish, these usually contains driers to accelerate the drying of the oil. Paint based essentially on oil with suitable pigment such as titanium dioxide, extenders, and usually zinc-oxide and white lead, are conventional outside house paints because these materials give the combination of properties which meet this requirement (Osemeahon and Dimas, 2013).

On the other hand, Emulsion paint is commonly water-based, with acrylic or vinyl added to make it more durable and easier to apply to walls and ceilings. These are paints with water-soluble vehicle and they include, calcimines, in which the vehicle is glue and case-in paints. Emulsions are useful because they allow ways to deliver active materials in water which is inexpensive and innocuous. A related advantage of emulsions is they allow dilution of these active ingredients to an optimal concentration (Osemeahon and Dimas, 2013). Emulsions are commonly used in many major chemical industries. After an emulsion paint is applied, the water evaporates and the polymer particles pack closely and fuse together to form a continuous film. The use of water rather than an organic liquid means that emulsion paints produce fewer VOC (volatile organic compounds) when they are used.

Emulsion is the most popular paint for walls and a ceiling due to the fact that it is water based and has less smell, dries comparatively quickly and is easy to apply. This fact has necessitated the need to search for an appropriated paint binder which can challenge the good properties of oil paint on one hand and use water as a solvent on the other hand poly (vinyl acetate) (PVA), is one of such binders commonly used for emulsion paint formulation. On the contrary, paints derived from PVA are characterized by poor water, chemical and water resistances, flexibility, gloss and durability etc.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

In recent decades, conventional paints are more and more replaced by environmentally friendly formulas (Traumann et al., 2014)whose use is recommended due to ecological considerations, specifically the reduction of volatile organic compounds emissions (Tucaliuc, 2014) and economic aspectslow volumes of organic solvents which tend to have a limited availability and are expensive. Conventional paints (Oil-based paint) is superior to emulsion paint in many respects such as water resistant, flexibility, gloss and durability. However, despite the superiority of oil paint over emulsion paint many countries are now threatening to band it usage through appropriate legislation due to it negative effect to the environment (Habibu, 2011). Many functional chemical ingredients in paints are not water soluble and require alcohol or other organic solvents to form solutions. These solvents may be costly, hazardous to handle, or toxic. Due to these problems, it has becomes necessary to produce paint from local and synthesized materials. This give rise to the need to carryout this study on the use of local pigment and extender for the formulation and production of emulsion paints.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

Aim

The aim of this study is to use local pigment and extender for the formulation and production of emulsion paints.

Objectives

To identify the local pigment and extender that will be used for the production of emulsion paints
To determine thespecific gravity of emulsion paint
To determinetheresistance of the emulsion paints to wet abrasion paint
To determine the kinematic viscosity of the paint
To determinethe temperature stability of the paint
To determine the drying time of the paint produced

1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

The justification of this work is that

high quality local pigment and extenders are abundant in Nigeria and if properly sourced and processed by paint industries it will help in increasing the quantity of local paint, hence reducing the cost of paint production and conserve foreign exchange (forex) and
It will provide job opportunities and reduce unemployment in the country.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of this study includes the formulation and production of emulsion paint using locally available pigment and extender as a binder. Effects of some physical properties such as drying time, viscosity, elongational break, density, melting point, moisture uptake, refractive index was determined.

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

On considering the high cost of imported raw materials for the production of emulsion paint in the paint industry, which at the end of the production affect the market price, likewise causing economy constrain, there is need to lookout for those locally available raw materials such as pigments and extenders (e.g calcium carbonate) which will give such desirable qualities and properties as those of imported raw materials (e.g Titanium Dioxide).

It will be interesting to note that science and engineering have some of possible solutions towards reduction of high cost of emulsion paint production and also this research work is directed towards the vital needs for the use of local pigments and extenders as raw materials for the production of emulsion paint of high quality and standards which will stand the test of time and also compete with those emulsion paints produced with imported raw materials.

Finally, this research work will be of more importance to the paint manufacturers in the country, who spend lots of money for importations of raw materials, while they are bless with much raw materials as pigments and extenders for emulsion paint production in the country.

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE CONTENTS OF FLAVONOID AND TANNIN IN PAWPAW LEAF

ABSTRACT

This study carried out a qualitative and quantitative content analysis of flavonoid and tannin in pawpaw (Carica papaya) leaf. Flavonoid and tannin are among the major chemical compounds (Phytochemicals) that occur naturally in plants especially in Pawpaw leave. They are characterized by multilateral pharmacological activity and broad spectrum of therapeutic actions. The qualitative phytochemical analysis of Carica papaya leaves showed the presence of flavonoid and Tannin. The qualitative test was justified by their color changes with their various reagents.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Natural fruits with high dietary value play a significant role to the and urban communities in the form of food and nutrient enhancement. Plants are important in our everyday existence. They provide our foods, produce the oxygen we breathe, and serve as raw materials for many industrial products such as clothes, foot wears and so many others. Plants also provide raw materials for our buildings and in the manufacture of biofuels, dyes, perfumes, pesticides, adsorbents and drugs. The plant kingdom has proven to be the most useful in the treatment of diseases and they provide an important source of all the world’s pharmaceuticals. The most important of these bioactive constituents of plants are steroids, terpenoids, carotenoids, flavanoids, alkaloids, tannins and glycosides. Plants in all facet of life have served a valuable starting material for drug development (Ajibesin, 2011).

In modern existence, the function and advantageous effects of numerous phytonutrients from plant origins such as fruits and vegetables had drawn the much-needed attention from both the scientists as well as the general public. These phytochemicals are non- synthetic antioxidant which are often promoted owing to the concerns as regards toxicity of the synthetic ones. Asides from scavenging activity of free radicals, antioxidants identified from most of the plants possess health beneficial effects such as antibacterial, antiviral etc (Akah, Enwerem and Gamaniel, 2007)

Carica Papaya is a brief, evergreen plant that grows up to 25 feet tall. Its hollow trunk is noticeable with leaf scars. The leaves grow in a spiraled huddle straight from the upper part of the stem on parallel petioles (leaf stalks) 1 to 31/2 feet long. The leaves are intensely divided and with an array in width from 1 to 2 feet. Naturally, the male and female flowers are produced on separate plants; however, there are hermaphrodite forms in cultivation which bear both male and female flowers on the same plant. The flowers are fleshy and waxy and have a light scent. The fruit has a taste of a combination of melons and peaches. Although, these trees are grown primarily for their fruit, however the tree contains latex from which papain, a digestive enzyme is extracted. Papain breaks down protein in meat to make it tender therefore Papaya can be used as a meat tenderizer (Baur, Sourer and Weiss, 2008)

It has several uses in this Modern-day including Immuno-modulatory , Fiber of c. papaya is able to bind cancer-causing toxins in the colon and keep them away from the healthy colon cells, protein enzymes including papain, chymopapain and antioxidant nutrients in papaya including vitamin C, vitamins E, and beta-carotene, reduce the severity of asthma, osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. It provides the human with protection against inflammatory polyarthritis a form of rheumatoid arthritis involving two or more joints. It helps the lung to be healthy and save life, rubbing the white pulp of raw c. papaya expels pimples as well as wrinkles. Papaya works as a good bleaching agent (Everette, 2013).

The ripe papaya fruit contains significant amounts of macro and micro minerals which are Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn. Ripe papaya is most commonly consumed as fresh fruit whereas green papaya as vegetable usually after cooking or boiling (Everette, 2013). Some of its allergies are link to a latex fluid when it is not ripe, which can cause irritation and provoke allergic reaction in some people, excessive consumption of papaya can cause carotenemia, the yellowing of soles and palms, which is otherwise harmless. However, a very large dose would need to be consumed. Papaya contains about 6% of the level of beta carotene in carrots (the most common cause of carotenemia) (Everette, 2013).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Antibiotics or antimicrobial substances like flavonoids and Tannins etc are found to be distributed in plants, yet these compounds were not well established due to the lack of knowledge and techniques. The phyto-constituents which are phenols, anthraquinones, alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids and saponins are antibiotic principles of plants. Plants are now occupying important position in allopathic medicine, herbal medicine, homoeopathy and aromatherapy. Medicinal plants are the sources of many important drugs of the modern world. Many of these indigenous medicinal plants are used as spices and food plants; they are also sometimes added to foods meant for pregnant mothers for medicinal purposes (Akinpela and Onakoya, 2006). Many plants are cheaper and more accessible to most people especially in the developing countries than orthodox medicine, and there is lower incidence of adverse effects after use. These reasons might account for their worldwide attention and use. The medicinal properties of some plants have been documented by some researchers ( Akinpelu and Onukoya, 2006).

Medicinal plants are of great importance to the health of individuals and communities. It was the advent of antibiotics in the 1950s that led to the decline of the use of plant derivatives as antimicrobials (Marjorie, 1999). Medicinal plants contain physiologically active components which over the years have been exploited in the traditional medical practices for the treatment of various ailments (Ajibesin, 2011). A relatively small percentage of less than 10% of all the plants on earth is believed to serve as sources of medicine (Marjorie, 1999).

1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study

Aim

The general aim of this study is to carry out a qualitative and quantitivate contents analysis of flavonoid and tannin in Pawpaw leaf.

Objectives

The specific objective of this study include:

To carry out a proximate constituents analysis of pawpaw leaf
To determine the qualitative and quantitative contents of Tannin and flavonoid in pawpaw leaf

PHYTOCHEMICAL MINERAL ANALYSIS OF PAWPAW LEAF

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

1.2 Statement of the Problem

1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study

Aim

The general aim of this study is to carry out a phytochemical mineral analysis of pawpaw leaf.

Objectives

The specific objective of this study include:

To carry out a proximate constituents analysis of pawpaw leaf
To determine the qualitative and quantitative contents of mineral contents in pawpaw leaf

Thursday, 2 June 2022

CONSTRUCTION OF PRIMARY DRY CELL BATTERY USING CASSAVA

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 background of the study

A turning point for mankind, the discovery and subsequent use of cheaply available fossil feedstock for the production of many beneficial products is mitigated by the realization that the supply of the fossil feedstock is limited, and that the use of derived products is neither environmentally, ecologically, nor economically sustainable. This has led to the recent global quest for renewable sources of energy (Li et al., 2012a). The discovery of biofuels has helped a great deal in alleviating some of the problems identified with fossil fuels such as global warming, as well as provide income and employment opportunities in rural areas. However, as identified by many concerned stakeholders, this alone is not sufficient to solve the looming energy crisis. Plans have been mostly devised to combine many alternative energy sources so as to cover for the looming crisis; however, most of these methods are not totally carbon neutral in their generation of fuel. More often than not, the criteria for a clean energy device, especially in developing countries, involves the lowest and barest energy input requirement, low set-up and maintenance costs, as well as low carbon emissions.

Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are one of the emerging technologies that currently fit these criteria. Not entirely new, this technology has risen into the development mainstream in the last couple of decades, and although not fully commercialized due to the necessity for improvements in the delivery and manufacture of the fuel cells, it represents a viable option in augmenting the planet’s rapidly depleting energy sources.

While the ability of microorganisms, particularly bacteria, to generate electricity was first observed by Potter (2011), minimal advancements in harnessing this source occurred over the next six decades. However, in the last three decades, great strides have been taken towards the advancement of this technology (Bennetto et al., 2018). The core of this work has been channeled towards improving and modeling power outputs, and characterizing microbial genetics and electron transfer mechanisms.

Since developing countries where energy crises are particularly acute also tend to rely heavily on agricultural production, they have access to a potentially large source of organic waste matter that can serve as an microbial fuel cells substrate for the generation of electricity, thereby alleviating current energy issues. A good example of such an agricultural product, produced in high quantities in developing countries, is cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz). Typically, the waste from cassava processing includes the effluent discharge (whyme), root peelings, and the fibrous root tissue removed during sieving — all waste materials presumably high in organic load. Use of the effluent in an microbial fuel cells has been demonstrated to allow electricity generation as well as serve in waste detoxification before its discharge into the environment. The possibility for a successful breakthrough in the usage of the cassava wastes is highlighted by the fact that the countries like Nigeria with the highest production are also the countries with one of the most acute energy shortages.

The concentration of hydrocyanic acid (HCN) in cassava tuber varies in different species of cassava. There are two major species of cassava viz: sweet cassava and bitter cassava. The sweet cassava has lower level of hydrocyanic acid, while the bitter cassava has a high level of the acid, about 490mgkg-1. The tuber stores a lot of water, but this could be eliminated by dehydrating the liquid juice which is the store of the acid. Hydrocyanic acid is poisonous; hence cassava tubers are carefully and elaborately detoxified before being consumed. By its chemical nature, hydrocyanic acid has both cation⁺ )( Hand anion (CN¯). When it undergoes dissociation the products are: HCN →← H⁺ + CN¯ . With these dipolar characteristics, it could undergo electrolytic process involving the exchange of ions and flow of electrons; this can constitute an electric current. The materials utilised include crushed cassava paste/juice (electrolyte), carbon black, manganese (IV) oxide powder, zinc can, carbon rod, cassava grater, absorbent material. The apparatus needed are voltmeter, ammeter and milliammeter, circuit wires, crocodile clips, electric bulbs.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Developing countries like Nigeria are faced with two major problems which include acute shortage of electricity and solid waste management which posed a pressing environmental challenge faced by urban and rural areas in the country, with a population exceeding 170 million people. Among several wastes generated by this huge population is agricultural waste. Improper handling of agricultural waste has raised a significant challenge in the past decades. In 2016, agriculture contributed 19.17% to the gross domestic product (GDP) of Nigeria and it also generated large amount of waste materials. Nigeria is involved in growing and producing many food crops. One of such crops is cassava, a starchy staple food crop which has the ability to resist drought and diseases. Three main types of residues are generated during the industrial processing of cassava: peels, solids, and wastewater. These wastes are poor in protein content, but their residues are very rich in carbohydrate and are generated in large amounts during the production of ‘garri’ and cassava flour from the tubers. The cost associated with the handling and disposal of these wastes constitutes a huge financial burden to the cassava-processing industries in most rural regions of the country. As a result of this challenge, most rural cassava processors choose to dispose the cassava-processing wastes generated into the environment. These wastes have been identified to be toxic to the environment ( ). In a bid to find a use for this abundant waste, the possibility of serving as substrate to produce electricity in a primary dry cell battery becomes very necessary, as the examination of the microbes present on cassava identified rod-shaped gram-positive and cocci-shaped gram negative bacteria as the dominant microbes growing indigenously on the cassava.

1.3 Objective of the Study

The general objective of this study is to construct primary dry cells battery using cassava.

1.4 Significance of the Study

There is great deal of ongoing research which seeks to optimize and predict Microbial fuel cells outputs, enhance associated microbes through genetic manipulation and improve fuel cell designs; however, research with respect to the use of some naturally occurring/generated agricultural products or waste is lagging behind. The heightened usability of such organic materials in microbial fuel cells would not only reduce the initial set up costs and improve microbial fuel cells viability, but also generate and heighten their attractiveness as a means to reduce greenhouse gases as well as overall environmental pollution.