AN ASSESSMENT OF LAND MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES IN ABUJA

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AN ASSESSMENT OF LAND MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES IN ABUJA

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background of the Study

Land is a scarce resource that supplies food, housing, and safety to the world’s inhabitants. Its efficient management is required not only to meet basic human requirements, but also to make people’s lives more connected, comfortable, and profitable. Better towns, well and more effectively placed infrastructure and utilities, secure and fair land rights for all, including women and indigenous peoples, fewer dispute of land, and higher economic stability and growth are all benefits of competent land management.

Land management systems are made up of textual records that specify rights and/or information, as well as geographical records that define the scope of those rights and/or information. They are fundamental tools for land management that work within the confines of land policy and the legal, social, and environmental context of a given jurisdiction. Land management systems are critical for promoting economic growth, social cohesion, and environmental sustainability. Any government aspiring to greater heights in economic development, among other things, must consider making reforms to its land administration system.

Land management and administration has a significant influence on the development, economy, and civil society, and is one of the modern society’s supports. Although states are the most important stakeholders in land administration, there are others who represent corporations and private individuals. The primary land administration function is to manage data about real estate ownership and to provide that data to interested parties upon request. The Land Administration System is used for land administration (LAS). LAS primarily collects information about real estate, such as its position, ownership, value, and use, as well as physical, geographical, and topographic information, legal data refers to information on a property’s location, ownership, value, and use, and it is kept in a land register. As a result, the approach that will ensure fair allocation, distribution, and redistribution of land in an efficient and effective manner is becoming increasingly complex, posing a challenge to land administration and management systems, particularly in developing countries such as Nigeria.

In Nigeria, the debate has continued to rage as to the domicile of ownership within the land management arrangement in the country, particularly with promulgation of the Land Use Act in 1978. There is dichotomy among scholars, jurist and stakeholders as to where ownership lies in land matters; that is, whether it is in the State or in the individual citizen. Though it has been said that; ‘ownership of land per se is irrelevant, it is however incontestable that ownership of land confers indelible rights and opportunities of the holders of the ownership rights. With respect to land, ownership refers to the right of the owner of land to possess, use, or otherwise benefits from, as well as disposes of, the land (Qin, 1994). It is the largest right that can exist in land. Ownership vests in the claimant an immediate or mediate right to possession of land that is not restricted or curtailed by any superior right vesting in another person (Olawoye, 1974).

Land management is focused on implementing decisions that have been made on the use of land resources geared toward ensuring regulatory and supervisory role between land administration and land policy. Terrafrica (2005) defined land management as “the adoption of land use systems that, through appropriate management practices, enable land users to maximize the economic and social benefits from the land, while maintaining or enhancing the ecological support functions of the land resources”. Land management can be seen to play a coordinating role between land policy and land administration. Its objectives are to fulfill the environmental, economic, and social goals of land policy by planning, promoting and controlling efficient land use through the process of land administration. According to Dale and Mclaughlin, (1988), it is important to note that, diverse methodologies utilized in explaining the synergy connecting “land management, policies and administration” do exist, as land management is seen to incorporate land administration and land policy. An effective land management system ensures that the land administration tools such as land registration and valuation, cadastre, land use information system are properly handled so as to ensure the appropriate implementation of the various land policy instruments ranging from improving land tenure security, regulation of land market, etc. to land taxation and land use planning and control. As such land management is strategized toward ensuring sustainability towards social equality, economic development and environmental protection in order to solve the problems of land inaccessibility. It is against this background that this study seek to assess land management challenges in Abuja.

1.2       Statement of the Problems

Prior to the promulgation of the Land Use Decree of 1978 in Nigeria, there were no uniform land management and administration system. In Nigeria, land was communally owned and vacant plots were allocated by the Chief or the Emir in whom the land was vested. No individual had absolute title to land. The traditional ruler held all land in trust for the use of the whole community. In Southern Nigeria, a kind of dualism existed in the ownership and control of land in which some parts or the land in a community were owned by individual families and others reserved for grazing, hunting, civic use etc. was held in trust for the community and administered by the traditional-ruler the Oba. The decree, among other things, puts all land in urban areas under the control and management of the governor of each state and all other land under the Local Government in which the land is situated. The governor working through the Land Use and Allocation Committee has the power to grant statutory rights of occupancy to any person for all purposes while the Local Government working through Land Allocation Advisory Committee has the power to grant customary rights of occupancy. It is against this background that success or failure of land reforms and administration can be evaluated. Observations in many countries, especially the developing countries, have shown the lofty objectives of land administration instruments, such as Nigeria’s Land Use Decree, are hardly achieved. Only in few countries are modest achievements made. Farvacque and McAuslan (1992) have identified, in their comprehensive study, a number of problems militating against successful land  management policies, these are: Over centralization of management and administration, Inappropriate, over detailed and inflexible regulatory and legal frameworks, lack of inappropriate use of resources and political will to tackle problems, administrative systems lacking in efficiency, equity, accountability and probity, and failure or reluctance to encourage participation from the urban poor.Abuja, the federal capital territory is face with a lot of challenges in the management of land especially in the area of plot allocation and compliance with the Abuja Master Plan. It in the light of the above that this study seek to assess land management challenges in Abuja.

 1.3      Aim and Objectives of the Study

1.3.1    Aim

The aim of this study is to carryout an assessment of land management challenges in Abuja with the view of ascertaining its effects on socio-economic activities of the residence of Federal Capital Territory.

1. Objectives
   1. To identify methods of land acquisition in Abuja.
   1. Ascertain the produces or method of land management in the study area
   1. To determine the problems associated with land management in the study area.

1.4       Research Questions

1. What are the methods of land acquisition in Abuja?
2. What are the procedures or methods method land management in the study area?
3. What are the associated problems of land management in Maiduguri metropolis?

1.5       Justification of study

The difficulty of accessibility of land by the average Nigerian justifies the need of this study. It is believed that the results of this research will be of great importance to aspiring land owners and property developers, the government, land officers in the Ministry of Lands and Housing, and members of the Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and Valuers.

1.6       Scope and Limitation of the Study

The scope of this study is limited to the appraisal of mismanagement of land in Maiduguri metropolis, this is to enable the researcher carried out an in-depth study at a manageable level.
The following are the limitations which may have likely affected the comprehensive and adequacy of the findings of the study:

1. Lack of accessibility to the master plan AbujaMetropolics.
2.  There is limitation to documents on the number of approved development and non approved development at local development. This would have enable to know the number of properties that complied with master plan if there any.
3. There is inadequate transportation facilities which would enable the researcher to access the outer peri-urban to gather more information

1.7       DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Land: Land is the part of the earth surface that is not covered by water, as opposed to the sea or the air.
2. Problems: These refer to difficulties an individual faces, come across or encounter while searching for land.
3. Land Administration: is a system comprising of sub-system that actualizes strategies to implement land policy and other. Land Administration is the way in which the rules of land tenure are applied and made operational.

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AN ASSESSMENT OF LAND MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES IN ABUJA

AN ASSESSMENT OF LAND MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES IN ABUJA

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background of the Study

Land is a scarce resource that supplies food, housing, and safety to the world’s inhabitants. Its efficient management is required not only to meet basic human requirements, but also to make people’s lives more connected, comfortable, and profitable. Better towns, well and more effectively placed infrastructure and utilities, secure and fair land rights for all, including women and indigenous peoples, fewer dispute of land, and higher economic stability and growth are all benefits of competent land management.

Land management systems are made up of textual records that specify rights and/or information, as well as geographical records that define the scope of those rights and/or information. They are fundamental tools for land management that work within the confines of land policy and the legal, social, and environmental context of a given jurisdiction. Land management systems are critical for promoting economic growth, social cohesion, and environmental sustainability. Any government aspiring to greater heights in economic development, among other things, must consider making reforms to its land administration system.

Land management and administration has a significant influence on the development, economy, and civil society, and is one of the modern society’s supports. Although states are the most important stakeholders in land administration, there are others who represent corporations and private individuals. The primary land administration function is to manage data about real estate ownership and to provide that data to interested parties upon request. The Land Administration System is used for land administration (LAS). LAS primarily collects information about real estate, such as its position, ownership, value, and use, as well as physical, geographical, and topographic information, legal data refers to information on a property’s location, ownership, value, and use, and it is kept in a land register. As a result, the approach that will ensure fair allocation, distribution, and redistribution of land in an efficient and effective manner is becoming increasingly complex, posing a challenge to land administration and management systems, particularly in developing countries such as Nigeria.

In Nigeria, the debate has continued to rage as to the domicile of ownership within the land management arrangement in the country, particularly with promulgation of the Land Use Act in 1978. There is dichotomy among scholars, jurist and stakeholders as to where ownership lies in land matters; that is, whether it is in the State or in the individual citizen. Though it has been said that; ‘ownership of land per se is irrelevant, it is however incontestable that ownership of land confers indelible rights and opportunities of the holders of the ownership rights. With respect to land, ownership refers to the right of the owner of land to possess, use, or otherwise benefits from, as well as disposes of, the land (Qin, 1994). It is the largest right that can exist in land. Ownership vests in the claimant an immediate or mediate right to possession of land that is not restricted or curtailed by any superior right vesting in another person (Olawoye, 1974).

Land management is focused on implementing decisions that have been made on the use of land resources geared toward ensuring regulatory and supervisory role between land administration and land policy. Terrafrica (2005) defined land management as “the adoption of land use systems that, through appropriate management practices, enable land users to maximize the economic and social benefits from the land, while maintaining or enhancing the ecological support functions of the land resources”. Land management can be seen to play a coordinating role between land policy and land administration. Its objectives are to fulfill the environmental, economic, and social goals of land policy by planning, promoting and controlling efficient land use through the process of land administration. According to Dale and Mclaughlin, (1988), it is important to note that, diverse methodologies utilized in explaining the synergy connecting “land management, policies and administration” do exist, as land management is seen to incorporate land administration and land policy. An effective land management system ensures that the land administration tools such as land registration and valuation, cadastre, land use information system are properly handled so as to ensure the appropriate implementation of the various land policy instruments ranging from improving land tenure security, regulation of land market, etc. to land taxation and land use planning and control. As such land management is strategized toward ensuring sustainability towards social equality, economic development and environmental protection in order to solve the problems of land inaccessibility. It is against this background that this study seek to assess land management challenges in Abuja.

1.2       Statement of the Problems

Prior to the promulgation of the Land Use Decree of 1978 in Nigeria, there were no uniform land management and administration system. In Nigeria, land was communally owned and vacant plots were allocated by the Chief or the Emir in whom the land was vested. No individual had absolute title to land. The traditional ruler held all land in trust for the use of the whole community. In Southern Nigeria, a kind of dualism existed in the ownership and control of land in which some parts or the land in a community were owned by individual families and others reserved for grazing, hunting, civic use etc. was held in trust for the community and administered by the traditional-ruler the Oba. The decree, among other things, puts all land in urban areas under the control and management of the governor of each state and all other land under the Local Government in which the land is situated. The governor working through the Land Use and Allocation Committee has the power to grant statutory rights of occupancy to any person for all purposes while the Local Government working through Land Allocation Advisory Committee has the power to grant customary rights of occupancy. It is against this background that success or failure of land reforms and administration can be evaluated. Observations in many countries, especially the developing countries, have shown the lofty objectives of land administration instruments, such as Nigeria’s Land Use Decree, are hardly achieved. Only in few countries are modest achievements made. Farvacque and McAuslan (1992) have identified, in their comprehensive study, a number of problems militating against successful land  management policies, these are: Over centralization of management and administration, Inappropriate, over detailed and inflexible regulatory and legal frameworks, lack of inappropriate use of resources and political will to tackle problems, administrative systems lacking in efficiency, equity, accountability and probity, and failure or reluctance to encourage participation from the urban poor.Abuja, the federal capital territory is face with a lot of challenges in the management of land especially in the area of plot allocation and compliance with the Abuja Master Plan. It in the light of the above that this study seek to assess land management challenges in Abuja.

 1.3      Aim and Objectives of the Study

1.3.1    Aim

The aim of this study is to carryout an assessment of land management challenges in Abuja with the view of ascertaining its effects on socio-economic activities of the residence of Federal Capital Territory.

1. Objectives
   1. To identify methods of land acquisition in Abuja.
   1. Ascertain the produces or method of land management in the study area
   1. To determine the problems associated with land management in the study area.

1.4       Research Questions

1. What are the methods of land acquisition in Abuja?
2. What are the procedures or methods method land management in the study area?
3. What are the associated problems of land management in Maiduguri metropolis?

1.5       Justification of study

The difficulty of accessibility of land by the average Nigerian justifies the need of this study. It is believed that the results of this research will be of great importance to aspiring land owners and property developers, the government, land officers in the Ministry of Lands and Housing, and members of the Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and Valuers.

1.6       Scope and Limitation of the Study

The scope of this study is limited to the appraisal of mismanagement of land in Maiduguri metropolis, this is to enable the researcher carried out an in-depth study at a manageable level.
The following are the limitations which may have likely affected the comprehensive and adequacy of the findings of the study:

1. Lack of accessibility to the master plan AbujaMetropolics.
2.  There is limitation to documents on the number of approved development and non approved development at local development. This would have enable to know the number of properties that complied with master plan if there any.
3. There is inadequate transportation facilities which would enable the researcher to access the outer peri-urban to gather more information

1.7       DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Land: Land is the part of the earth surface that is not covered by water, as opposed to the sea or the air.
2. Problems: These refer to difficulties an individual faces, come across or encounter while searching for land.
3. Land Administration: is a system comprising of sub-system that actualizes strategies to implement land policy and other. Land Administration is the way in which the rules of land tenure are applied and made operational.

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE CONTENTS OF FLAVONOID AND TANNIN IN PAWPAW LEAF

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ABSTRACT

This study carried out a qualitative and quantitative content analysis of flavonoid and tannin in pawpaw (Carica papaya) leaf.  Flavonoid and tannin are among the major chemical compounds (Phytochemicals) that occur naturally in plants especially in Pawpaw leave. They are characterized by multilateral pharmacological activity and broad spectrum of therapeutic actions. The qualitative phytochemical analysis of Carica papaya leaves showed the presence of flavonoid and Tannin. The qualitative test was justified by their color changes with their various reagents.  

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background of the Study

Natural fruits with high dietary value play a significant role to the and urban communities in the form of food and nutrient enhancement. Plants are important in our everyday existence. They provide our foods, produce the oxygen we breathe, and serve as raw materials for many industrial products such as clothes, foot wears and so many others. Plants also provide raw materials for our buildings and in the manufacture of biofuels, dyes, perfumes, pesticides, adsorbents and drugs. The plant kingdom has proven to be the most useful in the treatment of diseases and they provide an important source of all the world’s pharmaceuticals. The most important of these bioactive constituents of plants are steroids, terpenoids, carotenoids, flavanoids, alkaloids, tannins and glycosides. Plants in all facet of life have served a valuable starting material for drug development (Ajibesin, 2011).

In modern existence, the function and advantageous effects of numerous phytonutrients from plant origins such as fruits and vegetables had drawn the much-needed attention from both the scientists as well as the general public. These phytochemicals are non- synthetic antioxidant which are often promoted owing to the concerns as regards toxicity of the synthetic ones. Asides from scavenging activity of free radicals, antioxidants identified from most of the plants possess health beneficial effects such as antibacterial, antiviral etc (Akah, Enwerem  and Gamaniel, 2007)

Carica Papaya is a brief, evergreen plant that grows up to 25 feet tall. Its hollow trunk is noticeable with leaf scars. The leaves grow in a spiraled huddle straight from the upper part of the stem on parallel petioles (leaf stalks) 1 to 31/2 feet long. The leaves are intensely divided and with an array in width from 1 to 2 feet. Naturally, the male and female flowers are produced on separate plants; however, there are hermaphrodite forms in cultivation which bear both male and female flowers on the same plant. The flowers are fleshy and waxy and have a light scent. The fruit has a taste of a combination of melons and peaches. Although, these trees are grown primarily for their fruit, however the tree contains latex from which papain, a digestive enzyme is extracted. Papain breaks down protein in meat to make it tender therefore Papaya can be used as a meat tenderizer (Baur, Sourer  and Weiss, 2008)

It has several uses in this Modern-day including Immuno-modulatory , Fiber of c. papaya is able to bind cancer-causing toxins in the colon and keep them away from the healthy colon cells, protein enzymes including papain, chymopapain and antioxidant nutrients in papaya including vitamin C, vitamins E, and beta-carotene, reduce the severity of asthma, osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. It provides the human with protection against inflammatory polyarthritis a form of rheumatoid arthritis involving two or more joints. It helps the lung to be healthy and save life, rubbing the white pulp of raw c. papaya expels pimples as well as wrinkles. Papaya works as a good bleaching agent (Everette, 2013).

The ripe papaya fruit contains significant amounts of macro and micro minerals which are Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn. Ripe papaya is most commonly consumed as fresh fruit whereas green papaya as vegetable usually after cooking or boiling (Everette, 2013).  Some of its allergies are link to a latex fluid when it is not ripe, which can cause irritation and provoke allergic reaction in some people, excessive consumption of papaya can cause carotenemia, the yellowing of soles and palms, which is otherwise harmless. However, a very large dose would need to be consumed. Papaya contains about 6% of the level of beta carotene in carrots (the most common cause of carotenemia) (Everette, 2013).

1.2       Statement of the Problem

Antibiotics or antimicrobial substances like flavonoids and Tannins etc are found to be distributed in plants, yet these compounds were not well established due to the lack of knowledge and techniques. The phyto-constituents which are phenols, anthraquinones, alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids and saponins are antibiotic principles of plants. Plants are now occupying important position in allopathic medicine, herbal medicine, homoeopathy and aromatherapy. Medicinal plants are the sources of many important drugs of the modern world. Many of these indigenous medicinal plants are used as spices and food plants; they are also sometimes added to foods meant for pregnant mothers for medicinal purposes (Akinpela and Onakoya, 2006). Many plants are cheaper and more accessible to most people especially in the developing countries than orthodox medicine, and there is lower incidence of adverse effects after use. These reasons might account for their worldwide attention and use. The medicinal properties of some plants have been documented by some researchers ( Akinpelu and Onukoya, 2006).

Medicinal plants are of great importance to the health of individuals and communities. It was the advent of antibiotics in the 1950s that led to the decline of the use of plant derivatives as antimicrobials (Marjorie, 1999). Medicinal plants contain physiologically active components which over the years have been exploited in the traditional medical practices for the treatment of various ailments (Ajibesin, 2011). A relatively small percentage of less than 10% of all the plants on earth is believed to serve as sources of medicine (Marjorie, 1999).

1.3       Aims and Objectives of the Study

Aim

The general aim of this study is to carry out a qualitative and quantitivate contents analysis of flavonoid and tannin in Pawpaw leaf.

Objectives

The specific objective of this study include:

• To carry out a proximate constituents analysis of pawpaw leaf
• To determine the qualitative and quantitative contents of Tannin and flavonoid in pawpaw leaf

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Concepts and Attributes of Marketing

Concepts and Attributes of Marketing

Marketing is a way or philosophy of life, a discipline, as well as organizational function. Alexander (1990) officially defined marketing as the performance of business activities that direct the flow of goods and services from producers to consumers or users. The Ohio State University (1964) described marketing as the process in a society by which the demand structure for economic goods and services is anticipated or enlarged and satisfied through the conception, promotion and physical distribution of such goods and services. It is important to state that the scope of marketing is broadened beyond tangible or physical goods.

It entails service delivery and satisfaction of people (consumers) with non-physical products or services (Olakunori, 2002). The overriding goal of marketing and every marketing organization is the identification and satisfaction of the needs of consumers. This implies that marketing is all about people and the satisfaction of their needs. Marketing is perceived by Kotler (1980) as human activity directed at satisfying needs and wants through the exchange process. Mentzer and Schwartz (1985) described marketing as consisting of the activities performed by individuals or organizations for commercial and non commercial objectives, aimed at satisfaction through the exchange process of buyers’ demand for products, services, people and ideas.

Olakunori and Ejionueme (1997) posit that marketing is the identification and satisfaction of people needs through the exchange process. The business activities in marketing are much of concern to some situations. Anyanwu (1993) opined that marketing consists of business activities that seek to anticipate demand, help in developing and making the products or services available to the satisfaction of the consumers (users and at a profit to the organization). The dynamism in the world of technology is bringing a kind of metamorphosis to the concept of marketing. Kotler (1994) defined marketing as a social and managerial process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating, offering and exchanging products of value with others.

Moreover, Modern (1991) posits that the most important managerial task within the organization is that of understanding the needs and wants of customers in the market, and of adapting the operations of the organization to deliver the right goods and services more effectively and efficiently than its competitors. According to the author, marketing concept situates between two targets; the company and the market. The input of company is determined by the technology, research and development. Consumer or buyer behaviour and causes of changes in demand largely influence the market. As the company (service or goods providers) hit the market, the feedback, new products and service demands are expressed to the providers.

Advantages of Housing Cooperatives

Advantages of Housing Cooperatives

Housing co-operatives basically differ from other market actors by creating value for their members. With this in view UN-Habitant (2010) highlighted some advantages and there are noted below:

Economic Advantages

Co-operative society creates an opportunity for affordability of houses.Lower down payment, much lower closing costs, economies of scale, and a longer mortgage term all make co-operatives more affordable than other ownership housing. Members have no reason to increase monthly charges substantially unless taxes or operating costs go up, so monthly charges remain reasonable.

The cooperative member is usually considered a homeowner and, as such, can deduct his or her share of the real estate taxes and mortgage interest paid by the cooperative. Cooperatives can provide for accumulation of individual member equity. For market-rate cooperative societies, the accumulation of equity and resale prices are based on the market. Limited-equity coops establish limitations on the accumulation of equity to assure long-term affordability to new members.

Members have no personal liability on the cooperative mortgage. The cooperative association is responsible for paying off any mortgage loans. This can often make it possible for persons whose income might not qualify them for an individual mortgage to buy a membership in a limited equity coop.

With the involvement incooperative association, members can jointly exert influence in order to change tax rates and utility prices and obtain improved services from local governments. The cooperative, as consumer advocate, can also join with other organizations.  Cooperative society encourages saving among members. Members can benefit from economy of scale in cooperative operating costs as well as from not-for-profit operation. Also, when there are transfers, only the out-going member’s equity must be financed by the incoming member. Transfers of shares are subject to fewer settlement costs (UN-Habitant, 2010).

1. Social Advantages

Cooperatives housing offer control of one’s living environment and a security of tenure not available in rental housing. As mutual owners, member residents participate at various levels in the decision-making process. This is not true of tenants who usually do not have the opportunity to exercise responsibility. Members own the cooperative together and have the security of being able to remain in their homes for as long as they wish, as long as they meet their monthly obligations, and abide by the cooperative bylaws, rules, and regulations.

Many cooperative members indicate that the possibility for interaction with people from different backgrounds, cultures, and income levels is a positive factor in their decision to become a member.

By establishing cooperative procedures and working together, people are able to provide services for themselves that otherwise would be impossible to obtain. When one cooperatively organized venture is successful it often becomes clear that people can be successful in another area as well. As a result, the original effort often can be strengthened.

1. Physical Benefits

Shared maintenance responsibilities: cooperative members usually have limited direct maintenance responsibilities. The cooperative association is responsible for major repairs, insurance, replacement of worn-out buildings, and upkeep of common grounds and facilities.

Vandalism and Security: cooperative members vigorously protect their association’s property. An important benefit of converting rental properties to cooperative ownership is reduction in vandalism and abuse of property and improved and shared security arrangements. Recent studies show that the cooperative’s presence in the neighbourhood brings neighbourhood crime down (UN-Habitant, 2010).

Standard cooperative practices: it is evident that cooperative housing associations are most successful when operated in accordance with specific recommended practices, in addition to the general co-op principles. The cooperative’s board of directors should keep its members informed of all its actions. A regular communication system for instance, through frequent newsletter, information bulletins, special meetings, solicitation of members for opinions and priorities-strengthens the relationship between the board of directors and the members.

The cooperative society must maintain adequate financial reserves to protect the cooperative and its members’ interests. These usually include a general operating reserve and a reserve for replacing components of buildings as they deteriorate. Such reserves reduce the possibility of members having to pay unexpected special charges in emergencies. An annual audit should be conducted by professional accountants and made available to all members.  To protect the interests of the remaining residents, the cooperative board must have the right to approve incoming members who take the place of those leaving the cooperative. A credit check and a visit with the membership committee are usually required. This process also helps orient the incoming member to their rights and responsibilities as coop members (UN-Habitant, 2010).

HOUSING CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETY APPROACH TO HOUSING DELIVERY

HOUSING CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETY APPROACH TO HOUSING DELIVERY

According to Dogarawa (2005), Co-operative Societies emerged as an option explored by the majority which are mostly low income group and are somewhat alienated by the privileged minority that control the resources of an economy. The Societies have become a strong, vibrant and viable economic alternative in a period when many people feel helpless, powerless or disenfranchised to change their living conditions. Co-operative Societies are formed principally to meet peoples’ mutual needs based on the idea that together, a group of people can achieve goals that none of them could achieve alone. The formation and goal of Co-operative Societies is not to meet unessential collective or individual needs. Rather, it is aimed at providing basic needs which otherwise might take a long time to realize or completely unaffordable without assistance.

The UN-Habitat (2002) identified co-operatives as an important way of achieving the two goals of Habitat  Agenda which are “Adequate Shelter for all” and “Sustainable Human Settlement Development”. Also, the Global Strategy for Shelter to the year 2000 states that implementation of a shelter strategy will involve the redistribution of responsibilities to a variety of actors and stakeholders, including individual households, cooperative groups, informal and formal private producers, governmental agencies and ministries (UN-Habitat, 1989).

Co-operatives are people-centred and are owned, controlled, used and invested in by their members, who have a responsibility to support their co-operative by being an active member. In return, the co-operative must ethically service the needs of its members (Cooper 2012). Members are the heart and soul of a co-operative. The main purpose of a co-operative is for all members to join with a group of like-minded people to share in the benefits of co-operation, which are designed to meet the social, economic and cultural needs of its members. Co-operatives promote member development through their participation in governing the organisation, and usually provide local social or economic development, such as providing employment, goods or services that would not otherwise be available or affordable to the members.

Whether the term is used as co-operative housing or housing co-operative the literature on the subject matter is extant with conceptual clarifications (Wikipedia 2013, Sazama, 2000; Fasakin, 1998; NCHAA, 2001; Kennedy, 1996). The different definitions however reflect varying typologies rather than kinds of co-operatives. For instance, Wikipedia defined Housing co-operative as “a legal entity, usually a corporation, renting own real estate, consisting of one or more residential buildings, and that, it is one type of housing tenure”.

According to Sazama (2000) housing cooperative is one in which member-residents jointly own their building, democratically control it and receive the social and economic benefits accruable from living in and owning a cooperative. Housing co-operatives are often established to meet the needs and visions of certain groups of people, such as people from low income households, of specific ethnic or religious background, artistic persuasion, age, sex, sexual preference, disabilities, or environmental awareness.The general objective function of the housing co-operatives is to provide for the low and medium income class, decent and affordable housing. In terms of structure and function, they are mostly set up by civic organisations or private realtors with partial funding from governments which in most cases act as policy maker or facilitator (Adeboyejo & Oderinde, 2013).

In Nigeria, co-operative housing is not new, as the principle is embedded in the customs of many Nigerian ethnic nationalities. Among the Yorubas of South-western Nigeria, for instance, informal co-operative means, known as aaro in local language, have been used to achieve aspects of home ownership. This involved pooling physical efforts of relatives and friends, and obtaining loans, aajo or esusu from saving societies. However, there are very few, if any formal, or real housing cooperative movements in the country (Adeboyejo & Oderinde, 2013).

NATURE OF HOUSING DELIVERY IN NIGERIA

NATURE OF HOUSING DELIVERY IN NIGERIA

UN-Habitat (2010; 2012) estimated total housing needs in Africa at around 4 million units per year with over 60 per cent of the demand required to accommodate urban residents and that the figure may likely increase to 5 million per year in the cities. This translates into nearly 15,000 dwellings per day in order to accommodate the expected urban population growth. UN-Habitat (2010) also observed that rapid urbanization is generating extraordinary demographic pressure and demand for housing, land and infrastructure especially in African cities.

In many developing countries, including Nigeria, urban housing crisis is escalating unabated despite a number of new policies, programs and strategies being engaged in by public and private sectors in addressing this problem. Government has recognized that the majority of those in need of housing in many less-developed nations in Africa, Asia and South America are in the low income categories and that some require special housing programs to be able to live in decent housing (Offiaet, 2014).

Several studies have indicated that public housing provision involves policy formulation, institutional development, actual housing provision, allocation and management (Omole, 2001; Valenca, 2007; Sengupta and Tipple, 2007). This goes to suggest that challenges in public housing provision are related to policy formulation, institutional growth and development as well as actual production and consumption of housing units and services. In fact, Sengupta and Tipple (2007) noted that the performance of public-sector housing in terms of total supply and quality, price and affordability of housing and services depends on these key areas and perhaps on other intervening factors.

Specifically, the actual production of housing units and associated services is one of the key objectives of public housing provision which aims at increasing decent and affordable housing stock within a country, state or locality. However, evidence from literature review clearly shows that public housing provision in many developing countries, including Nigeria, has not recorded any impressive result in matching housing production to housing demand, as there are huge housing supply deficits in many less developed countries (Rondinelli, 1990; Mukhija, 2004; Sengupta and Ganesan, 2004; Olotuah, 2010).

The burgeoning housing supply deficit in Nigerian which as at 2015 was put at over 35 million housing units (Onwuemenyi, 2015) for instance, has been blamed on low productivity in public-sector housing. Taking a closer look at planned and constructed number of housing units in the different public housing programs initiated between 1962 and 1999 record shows that a total of 618,498 housing units were planned for production in the various public housing schemes across the country and around 85,812 housing units representing around 14% of the planned housing units were actually completed. This achievement level clearly shows that many of the public housing programs initiated by government within that period failed to meet the targeted number of housing units.

With respect to affordable housing provision, the UN-HABITAT (2006) report on Nigeria noted that past public housing policies and programs in the country were aimed at enabling low-income earners gain access to decent housing at affordable cost. According to Aribigbola (2008), the 2002 New National Housing and Urban Development Policy (NNHUDP) for instance, asserted that no Nigerian is expected to pay more than 20% of his or her monthly income on housing. But to the contrary, prior studies (Onibokun, 1985; Awotona, 1990; Mba 1992; Olotuah and Bobadoye, 2009; Ibem, 2010) have shown that the targeted population of many past public housing schemes in Nigeria did not benefit from such schemes. This was due to high cost of housing units provided. Consequently, several authors have contended that the constraints in accessing housing inputs (land, building materials and finance) as well as cost of providing infrastructure were partly responsible for the hike in the cost of public housing beyond the reach of an average Nigerian (Ikejiofor, 1999; UN-HABITAT, 2006; Aribigbola, 2008).

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (I.C)

INTRODUCTION – INTEGRATE CIRCUIT

An integrated or monolithic circuit is a set of electronic circuits on one small plate (chip) of semiconductor material, normally silicon; this can be made much smaller than discretion circuit made from independent components.

Integrated circuits are used in virtually all electronic equipment today and have revolutionized the world of electronics, computers, mobile phones, and other digital home appliances.

It can be made very compact, having up to several billion transistors and other electronic component.

HISTORY

Integrated Circuit where made possible by experimental discoveries showing that semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes and by mid-20^th century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication the integration of large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using discrete electronic components.

There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: Cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips with all their components are printed as a unit by photolithography rather than being constructed one transistor at a time.

Furthermore, much less material is used to construct a packaged I.C. die than to construct a discrete circuit.

Performance is high because the components switch quickly and consume little power (compared to their discrete counterparts) as a result of the small size and close proximity of the components as of 2012, typical chip areas range from a few square millimeters of around 450mm2, with up to 9 million transistors per mm².

TERMINOLOGY

An integrated circuit is define as a circuit in which all or some of the circuit elements are inseparably associated and electrically interconnected so that it is considered to be indivisible for the purposes of construction and commerce.

Circuits meeting this definition can be constructed using many different technologies – for example, thin-film transistor, thick film technology, or hybrid integrated circuit however, in general usage integrated circuit has since come to refer to the single – piece circuit construction originally known as a monolithic integrated circuit. 

INVENTION

Invention of the integrated circuit early developments of the integrated circuit go back to 1949, when the German engineer Werner Jacobi (Siemens A G) file a parent for an integrated-Circuit – like semiconductor amplifying device.

The idea of the integrated circuit was conceived by a Radar scientist working for the Royal Radar establishment of the British ministry of Defence.

Geoffrey W.A. Dummer (1909-2002).

Dummer presented the idea to the public at the symposium on progress in quality electronic components in Washington, D.C on 7 May 1952. He gave many symposia publicly to propagate his ideas, and unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956.

A precursor idea to the I.C. was to create small ceramic squares (Wafers) each one containing a simple miniaturized component.

GENERATIONS

In the early days of integrated circuits, only a few transistors could be placed on a chip, as the scale used was large because of the contemporary technology and manufacturing yields where low by today’s standard.

ADVANCES IN INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the microprocessors which control everything from computers and cellular phones to digital microwave ovens, digital memory chips and application specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC) are examples of other families of integrated circuits that are important to the modern information ping a complex integrated circuit is quite high, when spread across typically millions of production units the individual I.C. cost is minimized.

CLASSIFICATION

Integrated circuits can be classified into analog, digital and mixed signal both analog and digital on the same chip.

Digital Integrated Circuits can contain anywhere from one to millions of logic gates, flip-flops multiplexers, and other circuit in a few square millimeters. The small size of this circuit allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically microprocessor, DSPs, and micro controllers work using binary mathematics to process “one” and “zero” signals.

Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits, and operational amplification, active filtering, demodulation, and mixing analog ICs ease the burden on circuit designers by having expertly designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult analog circuit from scratch.

ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such as A/D Converters and D/A Converters. Such mixed – signal circuits offer smaller size and lower cost but must carefully account for signal interference.

Modern electronic component distributors often further sub-categorize the huge variety of integrated circuits now available:

DIGITAL ICS ARE FURTHER SUB-CATEGORIZED AS

–         Logic ICs,

–         Memory Chips

–         Interface ICs (level shifters, serializer/deserializer, etc),

–         Power management ICs and

–         Programmable devices.

–         Analog ICs are further sub-divided as linear ICs and FIF ICs.

Mixed-signal Integrated Circuits are further sub-categorized as data acquisition ICs (including A/D converters, D/A Converter, digital potentiometer) and clock/timing ICs.

The semiconductors of the periodic table of the chemical elements were identified as the most likely materials for a solid-state vacuum tube. Starting with copper oxide, proceeding to germanium, then silicon the materials where systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s. Today, silicon monocrystal are the main substrate used for ICs although some 111-v compounds of the periodic table such as gallium arsenide are used for specialized application like LEDS, lasers, solar cells and the highest-speed Integrated Circuits. It took decades to perfect methods of creating crystals without defects in the crystalline structure of the semiconducting material. Semiconductor ICs are fabricated in a layer process which includes these key process steps:

·        Imaging

·        Deposition

·        Etching

The main process steps are supplemented by doping and cleaning.

Mono-crystal silicon wafers (or for special arsenide wafers) are used as the substrate.

Photolithography is used to mark different areas of the substrate to be doped or to have polysilicon, insulators or metal (typically aluminium) tracks deposited on them.

Integrated circuits are composed of many overlapping layers, each defined by photolithography, and normally shown in different colours. Some layers mark where various dopants are diffused into the substrate (called diffusion layers) some define where additional ions are implanted (implant layers), some define the conductors (polysilicon or metal layers) and some define the connections between the conducting layers (via or contact layers) all components are constructed from a specific combination of these layers

In a self-aligned CMOS process, a transistor is formed wherever the gate layer (polysilicon or metal) crosses a diffusion layer.

Capacitive structures, in form very much like the parallel conducing plates of a traditional

Electrical capacitor, are formed according to the area of the “plates”, with insulating material between the plates.

Capacitors of a wide range of sizes are common on ICs. Meandering stripes of varying lengths are sometimes used to form on-chip resistors, though most logic circuits do not need any resistors. The ratio of the length of the resistive structure to it with, combined with its sheet resistivity, determines the resistance more rarely, inductive structures can be built as tiny on-chip coils, or simulated by gyrators. Since a CMOs device only draws current on the transition between logic states, CMOs devices consume much less current than bipolar devices.

A random access memory is the most regular type of integrated circuit; the highest density devices are thus memories; but even a micro-process or will have memory on the chip (see the regular array structure at the bottom of the first image) Although the structures are intricate with widths which have been shrinking for decades the layers remain much thinner than the device widths the layers of material are fabricated much like a photographic process, although used to “expose” a layer of material as they would be too large for the features, thus protons of higher frequencies (typically ultraviolet) are use to create the patterns for each layer. Because each feature is so small, electron microscopes are essential tools for a process engineer who might be debugging a fabrication process each device is tested before packing using automated test equipment (ATE), in a process known as wafer testing, or wafer probing. The wafer is then cut into rectangular blocks, each of which is called a die. Each good die (plural dice, dies, or die) is then connected into a package using aluminium (or gold) bond wires which are thermosonic bonded to pads, usually found around the edge of the die. Thermosonic bonding was first introduced by A. Coucoulas which provided a reliable means of forming these vital electrical connection to the outside hold. After packaging, the devices go through final testing on the same or similar ATE used during wafer probing. Industrial CT scanning can also be used.  Test cost can account for over 25% of the cost of fabrication on lower cost products, but can be negligible on low yielding, larger, and/or higher cost devices.

As of 2005, a fabrication facility (commonly known as a semi-conductor  fab) costs over USS1 billion to construction. The cost of a fabrication facility rises over time (Rock’s law) because much of the operation is automated. Today, the most advanced processes employed the following techniques:

The wafers are up to 300mm in diameter (wider) than a common dinner plate). Use of 32 nanometer or smaller chip manufacturing process. Intel, IBM, NEC, and AMD are using 32 nanometers for their CPU chips, IBM and AMD introduced immersion lithography for their 45mm processes copper interconnects where copper wiring replaces aluminium for interconnects. Low-k dielectric insulators, silicon on insulator (SOI) stained silicon in a process used by IBM known as strained silicon directly on insulator (SSDOI) multigate devices such as tri-gate transistors being manufactured by Intel from 2011 in their 22mm process.

PACKAGING

The earliest integrated circuits where packaged in ceramic flat packs, which continued to be used by the military for their reliability and small size for many years. Commercial circuit packaging quickly moved to the dual in-line package (DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the practical limit for DIP packaging leading to pin grid array (PGA) and leadless chip carrier (LCC) packaging appeared in the early 1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using finger lead pitch with leads formed as either gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by small-outline integrated circuit-a carrier which occupies an area about 30-50% less than an equivalent DIP, with a typical thickness that is 70% less. This package has “gull wing” leads pro-ruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0.050 inches.

In the late 1990s, plastic quad flat pack (PQFP) and thin small-outline package (SOP) packages became the most common for high pin count devices, though PGA packages are still often used for high-end microprocessors.

Intel and AMD are currently transitioning from PGA packages on high-end microprocessors to land grid arrays (LGA) packages. Ball grid array (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s. flip-chip Ball Grid Array packages, which allow for much higher pin count than other package types, were developed in the 1990s. in an FCBGA package the die is mounted up-side-down (flipped) and connects to the package balls via a package substrate that is similar to a printed-circuit board rather than by wires. (FCBGA packages allow an array of input output signals (called Area – 1/0) to be distributed over the entire die rather than being confined to the die periphery.

Traces out of the die, through the package, and into the printed circuit board have very different electrical properties, compared to on-chip signals. They require special design techniques and need much more electric power than signals confined to the chip itself.

When multiple dies are pat in one package, it is called sip, for system in package. When multiple dies are combined on a small substrate, often ceramic, it’s called an MCM, or multi-chip module. The boundary between a big MCM and a small printed circuit board is sometimes fuzzy.

Chip labeling and manufacture date

Most integrated circuits large enough to include identifying information include poor common section: the manufacture’s name or logo, the part number, a part production batch number and/or servel number, and a poor – digit code that identifies when the chip was manufacture. Extremely small surface amount technology parts often bear only a number used in a manufacture’s lookup table to find the chip characteristics. The manufacturing date is commonly represented as a two-digit year followed by a two-digit week code, such that a part bearing the code 8341 was manufactured in week 41 of 1983, or approximately in October 1983. Legal protection of semi-conductor chip layouts.

Integrated circuit layout design protection like most of the other forms of intellectual property, IC layout designs are creations of the human mind, they are usually the result of an enormous investment, both in terms of the time of highly qualified experts, and financially there is a continuing need for the creation of new layout designs which reduce the dimensions of existing integrated circuits and simultaneously increase their functions. The smaller an integrated circuit, the less the material needed for its manufacture, and the smaller the space needed to accommodate it.

Integrated circuits are utilized in a large range of products, including articles of everyday use such as watches, television sets, appliances, automobiles, etc, as well as sophisticated data processing equipment.

The possibility of copying by photographing each layer of an integrated circuit and preparing photomasks for its production on the basis of the photographs obtained is the main reason for the introduction of legislation for the protection of layout designs.

A diplomatic conference was held at a Washington, O.C, in 1989, which adopted a treaty on intellectual property in respect of integrated circuits (IPIC treaty).

The treaty on intellectual property in respect of Integrated Circuits, also called Washington treaty or IPIC Treaty (signed at Washington on 26 may 1989) is currently not in force, but was partially integrated into the TRIPS agreement.

National laws protecting IC layout designs have been adopted in a number of countries. Other developments in the 1980s, programmable logic devices where developed. These devices contain circuits whose logical function and connectivity can be programmed by the user, rather than being fixed by the integrated circuit manufacturer. This allows a single chip to be programmed to implement different LSI type functions such as logic gates,  odder and registers, current devices called field-programmable gate arrays can now implement tens of thousands of LSI circuits in parallel and operate up to 1.5 GHz. (citation need) the techniques perfected by the integrated circuit industry over the last three decades have been used to create very small mechanical devices driven by electricity using a technology known as microelectrone chemical systems. These devices are used in a variety of commercial and military applications. Example commercial applications include DLP protectors, inkjet printers, and accelerometers used to deploy automobile airbags.

In the past, radios could not be fabricated in the same low-cost processes as microprocesses as microprocessors. But since 1998, a large number of radio chips have been developed using CMOs processes. Examples include Intel’s DECT cordless phone, or Atheros’s 802. 11cards.

Future developments seem to follow the muticore multi-microprocessor paradigm, already used by the Intel and AMD dual-core processors. Rapport Inc. and BM started shipping the KC256 in 2006, a 256-core microprocessor. Intel, as recently as February-August 2011, unveiled a prototype, “not for commercial sale” chip that bears 80 cores. Each core is capable of handling its own task independently of the others. This is in response to the heat-versus-speed limit that is about to be reached using existing transistor technology (see: terminal design power). This design provides a new challenge to chip programming. Parallel programming languages such as the open source x10 programming language are designed to assist with this task.

Since the early 2000s, the integration of optical functionality into silicon chips has been actively pursued in both academic research and in industry resulting in the successful commercialization of silicon based integrated optical transceivers combining optical devices (modulators, detectors, routing) with CMOs based electronics.

SILICON LABELING AND GRAFFITI

To allow identification during production most silicon chips will have a serial number in one corner. It is also common to add the manufacturer’s logo. Ever since ICs where created, some chip designers have used the silicon surface area for surreptitious, non-functional images or words. These are sometimes referred to as chip art silicon art, silicon graffiti or silicon doodling.

ICs and IC families

The SSS timer IC

The 74 operational amplifier 7400 series IT logic building blocks 4000 series, the CMOs counterpart to the 7400 series (see also. 74HCOO series) Intel 4004, the world’s first microprocessor, which led to the famous 8080 CPU and then the IBM PC’s 8088, 80286, 486 etc

The MOS Technology

6502 and zilog z80 microprocessors used in many home computers of the early 1980s the Motorola 680 series of computer-related chips, leading to the 68000 and 8800 series (used in some Apple Computers and in the 1980s commodore Amiga series). The LM – series of analog integrated circuits.

IC Device Technologies

BCDMOS

BICMOS Bipolar/CMOS

Mixed technology

Bipolar junction transfer integrated injection

Logic

LDMOS

Logic family

MOSFET metal-oxide-silicon field effect Transistor multi-threshold CMOs (MTCMOS)

Depletion – load NMOS logic

SIGE – Silicon-Germanium technology.   

REFERENCES

–         Andrew Wylie (2009 “the first monolithic integrated circuit”

Retrieved 14 March  2011.

–         Antone consalves (2007) Samsung begging production of 16 – Gb  flash”

–         A.H.D Graham (2011) commercialization of CMOs integrated circuit technology in multi-electrode arrays for neuro-science and cell Based Biosensors

–         Arjun N. Saxena  (2009) invention of integrated circuits.

–         Ginz-berg. Eli (1976) Economic impact of large public programs:

The NASA experience Olympus publishing company.

–         George Rostky (2008) micromodules: the ultimate package.

–         Mindell, David A (2008) Digital Apollo: Human and machine in space flight. The MIT press

–         Nobel web AB (2008) (The Nobel prize in physics)

–         Peter Clarke (2005) ; Intel enters billions transistors processors.

–         Winston, Brian 1998) media technology and society

CONSUMER GOODS AND INDUSTRIAL GOODS

CONSUMER GOODS AND INDUSTRIAL GOODS

INTRODUCTION

The market, as an entity, comprises of different products. However, these products may be difficult to understand for consumers. Therefore, for conveniences, better identification and differentiation,  producers and marketers have decided to classify goods in two forms, namely; consumer goods and industrial goods. 

 

Product: A product can be refer to anything tangible and intangible that is capable of satisfying human wants. 

 

Consumers Goods

Consumers goods: Consumer goods are goods purchase for immediate consumption or for household use. These goods are distinguish among convenience, shopping specialty, and unsought goods.

The goods which are bought for household use, personal use, or family use from retail stores are called “consumer goods”. The consumers have certain buying habits and based on these habits the consumers goods are divided into three different sub-categories:

·        Shopping goods 

 

·        Specialty goods

 

·        Convenience goods.

 

The consumer goods can also be differentiated or categorized into durable and non-durable goods.

 

Durable goods are goods which have longer durability such as furniture etc. Whereas, non-durable goods include food, supplies for school etc. 

 

1.   Convenience Goods: Goods which the consumer wants to buy with maximum convenience are mostly non-durable, bought in small quantities, are of low value, and frequently purchased are called “convenience goods” like milk, bread etc. These goods which are planned buys are called “staple goods” where are goods like newspapers, candies, etc which are bough impulsively and where not planned are called “impulse goods”. 

 

2.   Shopping goods: The goods which are of higher value, purchased infrequently after a lot of comparing and deliberation by the consumer are called “shopping goods” like televisions, refrigerators etc. 

 

3.   Specialty goods: Goods which are special for a consumer for which he has planned a lot and wants at all costs are called “specialty goods” like clothing of a special brand, automobile of a particular brand, jewellery etc. 

 

è Industrial Goods: Goods which are bought by companies to produce other products which are sold later are called “industrial goods”, these goods can be directly or indirectly used in the production of goods which are classified according to their usage instead of consumer habits. The durable goods are called “capital items” as they are of very high value and non-durable goods are called “expense items” and are usually used within a year. They have been categorized into five subcategories: 

 

·        Industrial supplies: These include frequently bought expense items like computer paper, office supplies, light bulbs which help in the production of a final product are called industrial supplies. 

 

·        Installations: Capital items used directly in making other goods are called “installation goods” like machine tools, conveyor systems commercial ovens etc. 

 

·        Fabricated parts and materials: Goods which are used in a final product without processing are called “fabricated parts” like batteries, spark plugs, etc, used in automobiles. Items which require processing before using in final products are called “fabricated materials” such as steel, fabric for upholstery etc. 

 

·        Accessory Equipment: Accessory equipment are capital items which have a shorter life and are less expensive than installations such as hand tools, desk computers etc. 

 

·        Raw Materials: Products bought in their raw form like crude oil, iron etc which need to be processed before producing any goods are called “raw materials”.

 

Differences Between Consumer And Industrial Goods

Given below are some of the differences between consumer and industrial goods. 

 

1.   The consumer goods are those which are meant for final consumption by the consumer or in simple words they are used by the consumers directly while industrial goods are those which are not used by the consumers directly but these goods are used for the production of consumer goods. 

 

2.   Bread, Soap, furniture are some of the examples of consumer goods while lubricants, copper, timber, tools etc are some examples of industrial goods. 

 

3.   While the number of customers for consumer goods is very large but the quality purchased by them is less whereas the number of customers for industrial goods is less but they purchase the quantities in bulk. 

 

4.   The demand for consumer goods is autonomous demand as these goods are demanded for ultimate consumption while the demand for industrial goods is derived demand as these industrial goods are used for the production of consumer goods. 

 

5.   While the market in which the companies can sell consumers goods is large because of large number of customers whereas in case of industrial goods the market is small because of less number of buyers of such goods.

CONCLUSION

The major difference between these is that consumer goods are final goods while industrial goods are a factor of production. This means that consumer goods are simply used by the consumer while industrial goods are used to create other goods. For example, the cloths that are wear are consumer goods. So is our home computer or our mobile phone. By contrast, an industrial goods is something like a welding machine or a drill press or the robots that are used to make cars. The difference, then, is really in what they are used for.

REFERENCES

1.   M.O. ODE; B.O Duru NNEBUE; C.M. Mathew (2011): Fundamentals of Marketing Principles and Applications, 6^th edition, Divine computers, Kaduna.

2.   Amber, T. (2003): Marketing and the Bottom Line. The New Methods of Corporate Wealth, 2^nd ed. Pearson Education, London.

3.   Internet “Google”

4.   Abbah Adikwu Linus: Basics to purchasing Management 1^st edition Ray Product, Makurdi.