COMPARATIVE PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING OF Gongronema latifolium (UTAZI LEAVE) AND Moringa oleifera (HORSERADISH).

COMPARATIVE PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING OF Gongronema latifolium (UTAZI LEAVE) AND Moringa oleifera (HORSERADISH).

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

1.1       Phytochemicals

Plants are powerful biochemical and have components of phytomedicine since times immemorial. Man is able to obtain from them a wondrous assortment of industrial chemicals. Plant based natural constituent can be derived from any part of the plant like bark, leaves, flower, root, seeds e.t.c. (Gordon and David, 2001). Any part of the plant may contain active components. The beneficial medicinal effects of plant material typically result from the combination of secondary products present in the plant. The medicinal action of plants are unique to particular plant species. The systematic screening of plant species with the purpose of discovering new bioactive compounds is a routine activity in many laboratory in particular, the search for component with antimicrobial activity has gained increasing importance in recent times, due to growing worldwide concern about the alarming increase in the rate of infection by anti-biotic resistant microorganism (Davies, 1994). Hence, there is a constant need for new and effective chemotherapeutic agents.  Many plant species have been utilized as traditional medicine but it is necessary to establish the scientific basis for the therapeutic action of traditional plant medicine as these may serve as the source for the development of more effective drugs. Scientific analysis of plant component follows a logical pathway. Plant are collected either randomly or by following lead supplied by local healers in geographical area when the plant are found. (Vileges, et al., 1994).

In recognition of this fact, the World Health Organization (WHO) has been attempting to incorporate traditional medicine officially into the health care systems of developing nations. In 1998, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the World Wild Fund (WWF), together with WHO brought health professionals and leading conservationist together in Thailand to produce a set of guidelines for countries wishing to make the best use of their medicinal herbs/ plants and to conserve them for the future. They stressed the vital importance of these plants in primary health care and the great potential of the plant kingdom to provide new drugs (Silva, 1998). Several countries already boast their systems in which traditional plant-based medicine is officially accepted. However, it is apparent that, there exists a significant difference in the way in which western scientists view an illness and its cure, and the way it is perceived else where. It is often at a loss to explain how plants are used directly, especially in a traditional manner which sometimes involves rituals and supernatural intervention (Busia, 2005). In essence, all plants are by nature living chemical factories, and it is the complex substances that they produce that we have mostly used to help keep us healthy. Apart from the medicinal properties of these plants, some serve as a good source of food and shelter for man. And thus, the ability of plants to be converted to orthodox medicine used to relieve pain and effect cure is often seen in some parts of the plants. These parts are the stem barks, root barks, fruits, seeds, leaves and root. (Leckridge, 2004). The medicinal value of drugs is due to the presence of certain substances such as alkaloid, saponin etc. these are known as active principles. They are commonly found or more concentrated in the storage organs of plant such as roots, bark, leaves and seeds.

Gongronema latifolium: This class of medicinal plants is beneficial in preventing and treating certain diseases and ailments that are detrimental to human health. The leaves, which can be chewed, infused or used for cooking, are mainly used in the Western part of Africa for nutritional and medicinal reason. Utazi has a characteristic sharp, bitter and slightly sweet taste, especially when eaten fresh. It contains essential oils, glycoside, alkaloids, saponins and  tannin, various minerals, vitamins and some essential amino acids. The leaves have very high nutritional value and contain nutrients like potassium, calcium, sodium, proteins, copper, manganese, and fibre.

Moringa oleifera: This is a highly valued plant, distributed in many countries of the tropics and subtropics. It has an impressive range of medicinal uses with high nutrition value. Different parts of this plant contain a profile of important minerals, and is a good source of protein, vitamin, B carotene, amino acids, and various phenolics. In addition to its compelling water purifying powers and high nutritional value, Moringa  oleifera is very important for its medicinal value. Various part of this plant such as the leaves, roots, seed, bark, fruit, flowers and immature  pods  acts  as  cardiac  and  circulatory  stimulants,  possess antitumor,  antipyretic,  antiepileptic,  anti-inflammatory,  antiulcer, antispasmodic,  diuretic,  antihypertensive,  cholesterol  lowering, antioxidant, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, antibacterial and antifungal activities.

1. Background of the Study

One of the increasing differences between citizens of developed nations and the developing ones is clearly expressed in the quality of life that is led by them. In Nigeria and Africa at large, the average life expectancy is less than 55 years (WHO, 2014). In contrary to this figure, the average of those in developed nations was put at 71 years (WHO, 2013). This stunning difference calls for concern and essentially erodes the need to embark on policy backed scientific investigation into palpable reasons for this phenomenon. Emerging facts show that primary to quality of life when drive they determines the life expectancy index among other variables in the quality of health nutrition of a people and closely knitted to this are the availability and access to medicine and health practitioners. However, the problem of wide spread poverty which translates into inability to afford both good food nutrition and medical care is a challenge and factor that, in most cases, constrains most of the local people to rely heavily on locally available foods and plants herbs for treatment of diseases when the occasion arises. Having considered the above, it is important to state that government and stakeholders are beginning to lay emphasis on the need to co-opt ethno medicine into mainstream practice as a way of augmenting shortfalls in its obligations in providing healthcare to local populace.  The Federal College of Alternative Medicine (FEDCAM) is one of the few examples that readily comes to mind. Thus, on this basis, there is an increased and continuous research on various plant types both by health nutritionist and pharmacologist with the aim of identifying valuable nutritive and medicinal plants for health needs and challenges. The conscious effort to investigate the chemical compositions of the sample leafy vegetable in this more is influenced by the sustained use of the vegetable over the ages either as simple food or herbal medicine. Thus, testing the leafy vegetable to ascertain the presence and amount of phytochemicals compositions alongside proximate and antinutrient is to enable a statement of affirmation or otherwise of the M. oleifera and G.latifolium, as a plant of high value in the health needs of the populace and should therefore, be given proper publicity to encourage increased domestic cultivation and consumption of the vegetable.

It is against the backdrops of the foregoing that the efforts at research on the leaves are embarked upon to validate, refute or add to existing body of findings on the sample leaf of fact found during this work. While attention will be given to testing, screening to detect and determine through quantitative analysis of test results. It is hoped that emerging facts will be of immense help to anticipated end users.

Phytochemicals

Phytochemicals are a large group of plant derived compounds hypothesized to be responsible for much of the disease protection conferred from diets high in fruits, vegetables, beans, cereals, and plant based beverages such as tea and wine. Phytochemicals can be broken into the following groups, Flavonoids, Phenols, Steroids, Tannin, Glycoside and Alkaloid and many others.

1. Statement of the Research Problem

With the ever increasing need and challenges in society, the use of Moringa oleifera (Horseradish) And Gongronema latifolium, (Utazi) Leaves has been acknowledged as some of the common leafy vegetables used in communities as herbs for ethnomedicine in treating a variety of diseases and also serves as staple nutritive vegetable.

The research problem is that of attempt of investigating the presence of phytochemicals composition in the Gongronema latifolium and Moringa oleifera which may have satisfactorily encouraged their uses over the ages.

Aim and Objectives

To determine the qualitative analysis of constituents that make up the phy tochemical in Gongronema latifolium and Moringa oleiferaleaves.

To carryout comparative analysis on the phytochemicals present in the leaves of the two plants.

Scope of Study

This study focuses on the leaves of Gongronema latifolium and Moringa oleifera, there phytochemical contents.

PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF AFRICAN PEAR

PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF AFRICAN PEAR

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Plants are important in our everyday existence. They provide our foods, produce the oxygen we breathe, and serve as raw materials for many industrial products such as clothes, foot wears and so many others. Plants also provide raw materials for our buildings and in the manufacture of biofuels, dyes, perfumes, pesticides, adsorbents and drugs. The plant kingdom has proven to be the most useful in the treatment of diseases and they provide an important source of all the world’s pharmaceuticals. The most important of these bioactive constituents of plants are steroids, terpenoids, carotenoids, flavanoids, alkaloids, tannins and glycosides. Plants in all facet of life have served a valuable starting material for drug development (Ajibesin, 2011).

Antibiotics or antimicrobial substances like saponins, glycosides, flavonoids and alkaloids etc are found to be distributed in plants, yet these compounds were not well established due to the lack of knowledge and techniques. The phytoconstituents which are phenols, anthraquinones, alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids and saponins are antibiotic principles of plants. Plants are now occupying important position in allopathic medicine, herbal medicine, homoeopathy and aromatherapy. Medicinal plants are the sources of many important drugs of the modern world. Many of these indigenous medicinal plants are used as spices and food plants; they are also sometimes added to foods meant for pregnant mothers for medicinal purposes (Akinpela and Onakoya, 2006). Many plants are cheaper and more accessible to most people especially in the developing countries than orthodox medicine, and there is lower incidence of adverse effects after use. These reasons might account for their worldwide attention and use. The medicinal properties of some plants have been documented by some researchers ( Akinpelu and Onukoya, 2006).

Medicinal plants are of great importance to the health of individuals and communities. It was the advent of antibiotics in the 1950s that led to the decline of the use of plant derivatives as antimicrobials (Marjorie, 1999). Medicinal plants contain physiologically active components which over the years have been exploited in the traditional medical practices for the treatment of various ailments (Ajibesin, 2011). A relatively small percentage of less than 10% of all the plants on earth is believed to serve as sources of medicine (Marjorie, 1999).

In an effort to find alternative sources of feedstuffs to replace some or all of the maize in the diet of pigs and other non-ruminant farm animals, several studies have been conducted to determine the suitability of some agro-industrial wastes as feed ingredients.

These include cocoa pod husks, brewers spent grains, rice bran, maize bran, groundnut skins, and wheat bran. However, one by-product that requires consideration is cashew nut testa, a by-product obtained from the processing of cashew nuts. Its utilization as animal feed even at relatively low dosage formulations will minimize its disposal problem as well as reduce the cost of animal feeding.

1.2     Statement of the Problem

It is now known that agricultural materials are used as animal feeds and that they contain phytochemicals. These phytochemicals serve as antibiotic principles of plants.

The need for a cheap, renewable, easily available and nutritive source of material as feed supplements has therefore attracted me to investigate African pear leaf, (APL) as an alternative.

1.3     Objectives of the Study

Broadly stated, the purpose of this work is to investigate/assess the nutritive and medicinal values of African pear leaf as an effective replacement in animal diets. Specifically, this work investigated:

• The proximate constituents of African pear leaf; and
• The qualitative and quantitative phytochemicals of African pear leaf.

PHYSIOCHEMICAL AND ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF COTTON SEED AND LEAF

PHYSIOCHEMICAL AND ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF COTTON SEED AND LEAF

ABSTRACT

This study aimed to evaluate the antioxidant activity of chloroform extract of cotton seed and methanol extract of cotton leaf. The seed and leaf from Gossypium hirsutum L. was collected, air dried, powdered and subjected to chloroform and methanol extraction respectively and these extracts were screened phytochemically for their chemical constituents. Using standard phytochemical analysis procedures, results revealed the presence of tannins, saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids, carbohydrates, steroids and so on. The antioxidant activity of chloroform and methanol extracts of Gossypium hirsutum L. was determined by DPPH (2, 2 diphenyl-2- 2 picryhydrazyl) free radical scavenging assay. The chloroform seed extract and methanol leaf extract of Gossypium hirsutum L. had shown very significant DPPH free radical scavenging activity of the extracts was increased with increasing concentration. The result concluded that the seed and leaf of Gossypium hirsutum L. extracts have a potential source of antioxidants of natural origin and which can also be used in several applications requiring this property

CHAPTER ONE

 1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 MEDICINAL PROPERTIES

Medicinal plants are the sources of many scientific drugs of the modern world.  Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) seed oil and leaf is among the most common vegetable oils used in the US. Referred to as “America’s original vegetable oil,” it has been a part of the American diet since the 1800s and has been in high demand among consumers since then. The health benefits of consuming cottonseed oil and leaf include; it helps to reduce the chances of cardiovascular and heart issues like stroke, clogged arterial condition, and heart attacks, it promotes neurological health & memory, it helps in regulating body weight, it is beneficial for breastfeeding mothers in the sense that it help in producing breast milk when it consume as tea, it helps in reducing the chances of blood pressure in humans and regulates the same as well, it helps to prevent the chances of cancers etc.

1.2 PLANT OF STUDY

Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) belongs to the Malvaceaefamily with origins in tropical and subtropical areas. Thegenus Gossypium includes nearly 50 species. It is one of themost significant fiber producing plants providing fiber forthe textile industry. Cotton plants are an annually growing herb belonging to the genus Gossypium of the Malvaceae family (mallow family). Cotton is an essential fiber plant native to tropical and subtropical Americas, the Caribbean, and questionably some Pacific islands. It is cultivated for its fiber used by the textile industry to produce a great variety of apparel and fabrics. Cotton seeds containing 20 to 28 % oil are used to produce oil and are a valuable source of protein. It is quite unusual in that it is concurrently both a food and fiber crop. Apart from cotton it is also known as upland Cotton, Mexican Cotton, American cotton, American upland cotton and Bourbon cotton.

1.2.1 Plant

Cotton is an annual or perennial herb or shrub which grows from 40 to 45 cm to 1.5 to 2 m tall. The plant requires a long frost-free period, plenty of sunshine, and a moderate rainfall and tolerant of a wide variety of soils, but thrives best on deep, friable, moisture-holding soils with good humus supply. It has a well-developed taproot with numerous laterals penetrating as deeply as 3 m. Branches are of two kinds: vegetative and fruiting. Leaves are broad and heart shaped three-segmented greenish leaves, which are about 2 inches to 6 inches in length and emerge alternately on the stem. Flowers are cup-shaped with big and flashy petals whose hue ranges from white to yellow. The flowers have a purplish or reddish spot close to their base.

1.2.2 Fruit

Fruit of cotton is actually a leathery capsule called boll. Capsules are up to 4-6 cm long, spherical, smooth broadly ovoid to sub globose; beaked at tip; 3-5-celled, each cell contains up to 11 copiously hairy and fuzzy seeds. They are normally green while young turning to brown as they mature. Seeds are usually ovoid, 3.5–10 mm long, acute at the hilum, black or brown with a dense covering of white or rusty, long, woolly hairs (lint or floss) and with a fine, short tomentum (fuzz) everywhere or only at the hilum, about 36 per fruit. The weights of 100 seeds are about 10–13 g. By weight, they are 60% cotyledon, 32% coat and 8% embryonic root and shoot. Cultured cotton varieties’ fiber is mostly white. However, some varieties have colored fiber, which may be brown, green or creamy-colored. Technological properties of cotton fiber depend on the following values: fiber length, thinness, strength, breaking length, elasticity, crimpiness, and maturity.

Cottonseed, which must be removed from the fibers during “ginning,” is processed into oil by crushing, and is also used as a supplement for dairy feed, especially in California. Cottonseed oil is used in the industry of food (as an ingredient of margarines) and in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industry. It is also used for the production rubber and plastics.

 Cotton seed is rich in oil (18–24%) andprotein (20–40%) and is utilized in the feed and oil industries.Agricultural economists have identified cotton as aneconomical plant creating jobs for 350 million people fromthe farm to processed products (Wendel et al. 2009). Underunsuitable storage conditions, cotton seeds containing highconcentrations of oil are more susceptible to deterioration(Iqbaletal. 2007). Starch immobilization involves the transportation of sugars to theembryo of the seed where it is used.

The development and regulation of amylase activity duringgermination are best observed in the seed of the plant. In the dry seed, there is low level of beta amylase activity inthe starchy endosperm and decreased alpha amylase activity(Ernst 2006). It is well known that anatomic studies ofthe seed can be used to determine seed health, as well asthe state of structural changes in the plant seed under stress(Mashinsky and Nechitailo2007). Previous work has primarilyfocused on changes in metabolites in plants undergoing stress. Current research has attempted to distinguish theposition of these metabolites in cell and tissues (Gershenzon2006; Ashraf and Foolad2006; Mahajan and Tuteja2006).

1.2.3 Leaves

Tree cotton branches are covered with pubescence and are purple in color. Stipules are present at the leaf base and they are linear to lanceolate in shape and sometimes falcate (i.e. sickle-shaped). Leaves are attached to the stem by a 1.5 to 10 cm petiole. Blades are ovate to orbicular in shape and have five to seven lobes, making them superficially resemble a maple leaf. Lobes are linear to lanceolate, and often a tooth is present in the sinus. Glands are present along the midrib or occasionally on the adjacent nerves. Leaves are glabrescent, meaning the pubescence is lost with age, but when it is present on young leaves, it is both stellate (i.e. star-shaped) and simple.

1.3AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the study is to determine the phytochemicals and antioxidant activity of seed and leaf of cotton(Gossypium hirsutum L.)

1.4OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

To get extract from cotton seed and leaf

To determine the antioxidants activity of plant using DPPH reagent

To also carry out phytochemical screening on the samples for the presence of secondary metabolite

1.5STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

Exogenous antioxidants can be derived from natural sources (vitamins, flavonoids, anthocyanins, some mineral compounds), but can also be synthetic compounds, like butylhydroxyanisole, butylhydroxytoluene, gallates, etc.Tache A, et al (2011). There is an increasing interest in antioxidants, particularly in those intended to prevent the presumed deleterious effects of free radicals in human body, as well as the deterioration of fats and other constituents of food stuff. (Molynex P. 2006). Studies on (Gossypium hirsutum L.) cotton seed and leaf will prove its antioxidant effect and also it’s important to the society and organic chemistry field.

1.6 JUSTIFICATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

Cotton seed and leaf have become important in food and pharmaceutical industries with many as a result of many applications being considered effective in treating many human afflictions. Incorporation of these cotton seed and leaf in food and pharmaceutical industries can replace other antioxidants because they contain a lot of phytochemicals. There is need to produce natural antioxidant with lesser side effect, hence, the need for antioxidant from cottonseeds and leaf.