ENEMS MICROSYSTEMS RESEARCH SPOT: Chemical Engineering

Showing posts with label Chemical Engineering. Show all posts

Saturday, 8 April 2023

PRODUCTION AND APPLICATION OF DYES FROM DIFFERENT PLANT PARTS

PRODUCTION AND APPLICATION OF DYES FROM DIFFERENT PLANT PARTS

ABSTRACT

Environmental pollution as well as the global prevailing economic problems has necessitated the need to utilize indigenous natural resources as dye materials due to their environmental friendliness, easy availability, and lower price compared to the synthetic dyes. This study was carried out to investigate the dyeing properties of solvent extracts of different parts of three local plants; seed of Kola nut (Cola acuminate), stem of Ginger (Zingiber officinale) and outer skin of Onion (Allium sepa). The fastness property of the dye extracts was tested on white different fabrics which are cotton, nylon, polyester and silk the extracts shows to be stable on cotton fabric than the other fabrics. When the test fabrics were treated with mordant ( Potassium permanganate, Potassium dichromate, Copper sulphate and Cobalt tetrachloride)and the dye extracts were used on them they changes color to different shades of brown, some pink and their fastness properties greatly increases to be more stable to light and wash. The dye extract from kola nut has the highest yield (5.51 %) followed by ginger extract (3.26 %) and then the onion extract (1.23 %.).

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Although dyes abound in the natural environment, dyes can also be formed in different ways and used in different applications depending on their manufacturing process. Dyes can be formed by using chemicals like acids or extracted from earth and mineral sources. Natural dyes can be obtained even from our own backyards and used to color fabric and other household items. These include various parts of plants such as flowers, roots, and nuts which can be processed to obtain many colors. Natural dyes produce vibrant colors, creating a palette that is compatible and blend with each other.

Adu-Akwaboa (1994) shares the view that natural dyes of various colors can be obtained from many local plants in Nigeria and that dyes can be extracted from barks of trees, leaves, roots, seeds, fruits, flowers, or the young shoots. Similarly, Harris (1995) asserts that plants in the environment can be exploited to achieve natural colors of various shades to color natural fibers and textiles by means of dyeing, printing or painting. Harris mentions that the roots of some species of the madder plant which could be grown practically everywhere were used from the earliest times to produce a whole range of reds. Red animal dyes derived from certain species of scale insects were also highly valued from ancient times and right through the Middle Ages. The literature indicates that until the 19th century, all dyes were derived from vegetable or more rarely animal or mineral sources. By the early part of the last century, only a small percentage of textile dyes were extracted from plants. Dye is a soluble colored compound which is a widely used material in almost all industries. The preparation and application of dyestuffs is one of the oldest forms of human activities. Many garden flowers make beautiful dyes ranging from yellow to orange and brown. Several workers have extracted a number of dyes from a variety of local plants. According to Akpuaka (1998) and Osabohiem (2002), the local plants like canwood, redwood, henna, banana, annatto, rothmania, indigovine, kola turmeric, Rosette and ginger all contain different types of dyes which are used for various purposes.

The suitability of some of these dyes for dying purposes has been investigated on different types of fabric. Another plant that will make a beautiful dye is onions skin; onions skin will produce a beautiful orange color with alum and tartaric acid. Akpuaka (1993). An evaluation of other properties of a number of dyes including synthetic dyes has also been reported by a number of researchers. Obanda et al (1997) and Dambata et al (1997). Ekandern et al (1997); Eze et al, (2002); Yakasai et al, (2005); Izonfuo et al, (2000) and Sudarshan et al, (2011) have also reported their findings on the use of some natural dye extracts as indicators in acid-base titrimetry. Other than these few reported cases, very little attention has been paid to the use of local plant dye extracts as dyeing materials. Today synthetic dyes are the choice of many pharmaceutical, textiles, food industries for impacting colors on their products and for acid-base titrations in laboratories but due to environmental pollution, availability, ease of preparation and cost effectiveness, the search for natural compounds as dyes and dyeing materials started.

Thus the purpose of this study is to extract and investigate the dyeing properties of some local plant extracts that could be used as effectively as well as their workability as good dyeing stuffs. Natural dyes generally require a mordant, which are metallic salts of aluminum, iron, chromium, copper and others, for ensuring the reasonable fastness of the color to sunlight and washing. Natural dyes are also used to color food.

1.2 Brief History of Dyeing

The art of dyeing is as old as our civilization. Dyed textile remnants found during archaeological excavations at different places all over the world provide evidence to the practice of dyeing in ancient civilizations. Natural dyes were used only for coloring of textiles from ancient times till the nineteenth century. As the name suggests, natural dyes are derived from natural resources. Coloring materials obtained from natural resources of plant, animal, mineral, and microbial origins were used for coloration of various textile materials. Different regions of the world had their own natural dyeing traditions utilizing the natural resources available in that region. Use of natural dyes started to decline after the invention of synthetic dyes in the second half of the nineteenth century. Concerted research efforts in the field of synthetic dyes and rapid industrialization of textile production resulted in almost complete replacement of natural dyes by synthetic dyes on account of their easy availability in ready-to-apply form, simple application process, consistency of shades, and better fastness properties. The tradition of using natural dyes could survive only in certain isolated pockets. Recent environmental awareness has again revived interest in natural dyes mainly among environmentally conscious people. Natural dyes are considered eco-friendly as these are renewable and biodegradable; are skin friendly and may also provide health benefits to the wearer. Natural dyes can be used for dyeing almost all types of natural fibers. Recent research shows that they can also be used to dye some synthetic fibers. Apart from their application in textiles, natural dyes are also used in the coloration of food, medicines, handicraft items and toys, and in leather processing, and many of the dye-yielding plants are used as medicines in various traditional medicinal systems. There are several challenges and limitations associated with the use of natural dyes. The current dyestuff requirement from the industry is about 3 million tones. Considering this fact, the use of natural dyes in mainstream textile processing is a big challenge. As agricultural land is primarily required to feed an ever-increasing world population, support livestock and biodiversity should not be compromised for the extraction of dyes, sustainability of natural dyes is a major issue. Samantha (2011).

1.3 Statement of the Problem

Since time immemorial, the roots, seeds, leaves, bark and flowers of plants and also mineral matter have been used to dye textiles. Natural dyes or colorants are also used in the food manufacturing industry with the prime motive of making their products very attractive. Until the 1850s, the World Book Encyclopedia (2001) reports that all dyes were made from natural sources such as the roots, seeds, leaves, bark and flowers of plants and also mineral matter. Synthetic dyes came into existence during the late 1800s and 1900s, and were widely used owing to their property of better color fastness. The industry now uses a wide variety of these synthetic dyes. As a result, the natural dyes which are less harmful are no longer used while more chemical dyes are used. These toxic materials pollute the environment and create more hazards to life. The adaptation of synthetic dyes in Nigeria has drastically reduced interest in exploration of plant dyes from our environment. This is because, one can get the synthetic dyes which have better fastness property easily on the market instead of going through the long process of walking through the forest to collect the plants from which dyes are extracted. As though this was not enough, synthetic food colorants are being used to color food items like fried yam and turkey tail, beef, bread, pig feet and pastries which are sold in the market. Even though these synthetic dyes come in handy, they are expensive and may be environmentally unfriendly. Furthermore, educational institutions located in rural communities where commercial dyes are unavailable for lack of suppliers or inaccessible for lack of funds to purchase them, could use the resourcefulness of our natural environment; thus coming out with their own dyes from flora available in their localities Opoku-Asare (2004). This project is intended to serve as reference material for practical science works. Also, not paying attention to the extensive possibilities and creative capacity of the art practitioners to develop technical skills through the use of the material resources in the natural environment will jeopardize the classroom setting, which is expected to be a field with the right kind of artistic experiences needed to obtain the objective of self expression among students. It is therefore expedient in this regard that, research be carried out into basic ways of the extraction and application of dyes from local plants found in the environment as substitute for synthetic colorants used in the textile and food industry, which will not be harmful to the human system. In addition, this research can help to alleviate boredom and create versatility in the science setting by educating urban dwellers and students of chemistry on the processes involved in obtaining and producing natural dyes from the environment, including the forest reserves.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

1. To identify some plants from which dyes can be extracted.

2. To test the properties of the plant dyes.

3. To evaluate the application of theses plant dyes on different fabrics (cotton, polyester, nylon and silk).

1.5 Research Questions

1. What are some of the natural plants from which dyes can be extracted?

2. How can these extracted dyes be used to dye textiles?

3. To what extent can the forest reserves be explored to create wealth for the Nigerian textiles producers?

1.6 Delimitation

The study was limited to exploring the plants from which dyes can be extracted and used as colorants for selected textile fabrics. Although there are different dyes additives (Acids and Alkali) that are, used to enhance fabrics, the study was limited to coloring agents.

1.7 Limitations

The research was characterized by collecting and ascertaining data on the existence of some plants. However, resource and funding constraints was a major drawback in gathering several of the plants from which dye can be extracted from, since more solvent will be needed for the extraction.

1.8 Importance of the Study

The study seeks to explore and capture some plants from which dyes can be extracted and applied to textile fabrics. The study also plays a distinctive role in providing beneficial information to the textile industries, students and scholars. In addition, the study would create the awareness of unexplored plant dyes and finally serve as a reference material to other research works.

1.9 Definition of Terms

Adhere: The ability for a dye to stick firmly to a substrate.

Affinity for dye: The ability for a fiber or fabric to attract dye and exhaust it.

Bleed: To spread color from one area of a substrate to another area, bleeding may produce both color loss and staining.

Crack: To transfer color as a result of abrasion or rubbing.

Exhaustion: The amount of transfer of dye from the bath to the fiber, either by, adsorption or absorption.

Dye stuff: To change the color of something by using a special liquid. The substance has the ability to change the appearance of a substrate.

Dye liquor: This is a solution or liquid mixed with color to enable dyeing.

Fabric: This is formed by assembling yarns and or fibers into one cohesive Structure. The most common fabric structures are woven, knit, and non-woven. Fabric may be referred to as cloth, material, piece goods or goods.

Fade: A fabric is said to fade when it loses color or runs out during washing.

Fastness: The resistance of a material to change in color characteristics.

Fiber: These are fine hair-like substances. They may be natural or manufactured and are the smallest components of a textile product. Cotton is an example of a natural fiber while polyester on the other hand is a manufactured fiber.

Finish: This is any chemical or mechanical treatment or process that modifies the properties of textile products.

Frost: Loss of color resulting from localized abrasion.

Migrate: Shift color; this occurs when moisture lifts color and deposits it in another area. This is most seen in the underwear area.

Textiles It is a broad classification of materials that can be utilized in constructing fabrics, including textile fibers, and yarn. It is also used to designate the constructed fabric including woven, knitted, and non-woven structures as well as lace and crocheted goods. Yarn: Yarns are groupings of natural or manufactured fibers that are combined to form a continuous strand that can be used to produce fabric.

Monday, 27 March 2023

PRODUCTION OF FACE CLEANSING GEL USING TURMERIC, HONEY, GLYCERIN AND EUCALYPTUS OIL

PRODUCTION OF FACE CLEANSING GEL USING TURMERIC, HONEY, GLYCERIN AND EUCALYPTUS OIL

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

Medicinal plants have provided a reliable source for preparation of new drugs as well as combating diseases, from the dawn of civilization. The extensive survey of the literature revealed that turmeric, honey, glycerin and eucalyptus oil are highly regarded as a universal panacea in the herbal medicine with a wide spectrum of pharmacological activities. These plants and natural products are distributed throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world and are widely used for treatment of different ailment and beauty products such as face cleansing gels which is used for skin treatment (William, 2012).

The skin is the largest organ of the body, accounting for about 15% of total adult body weight. It performs many vital functions, including protection against external, physical, chemical and biological assailants, as well as prevention of excess water loss from the body and role in thermoregulation. The skin is continuous, with the mucous membranes lining the body’s surface. To keep skin healthy, clear, glossy, a balanced nutrition is required. Apart from the balanced nutrition, hormonal changes especially during puberty in both sexes cause many changes in the body. Among various changes, dryness, roughness and pimples are most common. The pathogenesis of this are bacterial over growth and inflammation. To overcome this problem the use herbal remedies such as face cleansing gels from natural products such as turmeric, honey, glycerin and eucalyptus oil is required (Sanju et al., 2017).

Herbal face cleansing gel alleviate age- related changes and neutralize environmental attack by removing skin cells on the surface and stimulating cell growth in the sub-epidermal layer. As grow older, rate of cell turnover slows down dramatically. Majorly dead cell found on facial skin surface hang around much longer, a fact that tends to emphasize those fine lines and can make complexion dull and lifeless. To remain healthy and of good appearance, the skin surface requires frequent cleansing to remove grin, sebus and other secretions, dead cells, crusts and applied make-ups. By removing these dead skin cells exfoliating skin- whether physically with scrub using herbal products containing vitamins, antioxidants, antiseptics and anti-aging properties which help to deep cleanse the skin and make it glow and attractive(Sanju et al., 2017).

1.1 Statement of the problem

Dirt found on the skin consists of sweat, sebum and its break down products, dead skin cells, residues of cosmetics and personal care products applied to the skin, dust, and other environmental impurities carried in the air(Sanju et al., 2017). Most of these compounds are not soluble in water, so washing the skin with simple water would not be sufficient to remove dirt.2. The general purpose for skin cleansing is to reduce these dirt using skin cleansing products which contain surfactants that are capable of emulsifying water-insoluble ingredients into micelles that can be easily washed away from the skin. Unfortunately, many skin cleansers do cause changes in the skin’s structure and barrier function, leading to irritation, dryness, redness, and itching; as cleansing products are primarily based on anionic surfactants, approaches have beendeveloped to decrease the tendency of these surfactants to damage skin proteins.

In order to maintain the skin barrier during cleansing, itis best to maintain the endogenous lipids and the native skinstructure. The addition of polymeric species that interactwith the surfactants to modern cleanser formulations createsless aggressive cleansers. Therefore this study helps to formulate face cleansing gel from turmeric, honey, glycerin and eucalyptus oil which has no side effect on the skin.

1.2 Justification of the Study

The use of synthetic beauty products with several side effects such as itching, offensive odour, irritation among others are common today, which have undermine the general purpose of cleansing agents thus giving rise to the need for a more body friendly products with no side effects. Therefore is study on the production of face cleansing gel using turmeric, honey, glycerin and eucalyptus oil is justifiable as this provides to solution to the problems created by using synthetic beauty products.

1.3 Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to produce face cleansing gel using turmeric, honey, glycerin and eucalyptus oil.

1.4 Objectives of the study

To determine the physical properties of the face cleansing gel such as colour, odour and consistency.
To determine the pH level of the face cleansing gel
To determine the spreadability and washability properties of the product.

Sunday, 27 November 2022

THE USE OF LOCAL PIGMENT AND EXTENDER FOR THE FORMULATION AND PRODUCTION OF EMULSION PAINTS

THE USE OF LOCAL PIGMENT AND EXTENDER FOR THE FORMULATION AND PRODUCTION OF EMULSION PAINTS

ABSTRACT

This study uses local pigment and extender for the formulation and production of emulsion paints. The emulsion paint was produced using water, hibiscus flower, hexane, yellow oxide (colour), Bermacol, Acrylate, Deformer, Gernapour, Texanol and ammonia. The study found that the specific graphic of the emulsion paint was found to be 25kg/m³, the density was 23g/ml while viscosity is at 100m²/s and the drying time of the formulated emulsion paint was found to be between 10 – 13 minutes outside and 10 – 20 minutes inside. the study shows that there was a good compatibility between the pigment and the binder during the paint formulation, which accounts for the deeper colour and good opacity for the emulsion paint formulated. The formulated emulsion was also found to have moderate viscosity which accounts for good flow properties. These results have revealed that the emulsion paints formulated could be used as both indoor and outdoor coatings.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Painting is a unique human activity that have helped the human race to contribute significantly in earning a better livelihood and building a better and more beautified world for ourselves (Akinterinwa, et al, 2018). Paints simply means organic coatings applied to surfaces with the sole aim of imparting both protective and aesthetic functions. Paints and other pigments come in a variety of gloss levels which corresponds to the level of a pigment dispersed in a substance usually called a vehicle or binder, usually polymeric in nature,which adheres to the substrate. The vehicle (i.e the binder) is one of the most important ingredients in paint formulation because it is a film-forming material or oil (Gopalan et al, 2020).

Paint is a fluid, or semi-fluid material which may be applied to surfaces in relatively thin layers, and which changes to a solid coating with time. The change to a solid material may or may not be reversible, and may occur by evaporation of solvent by chemical reaction, or by a combination of the two. Paints usually consist of vehicle or binder, a pigment which contributes obscurities colour, hardness and bulk to the film, and a solvent or thinner which controls the consistency. Paint is basically classified into two, which are gloss paint and emulsion paint (Osemeahon and Dimas, 2013).

Gloss paints (oil-based paints) are paints that may be classified according to whether the drying mechanism is predominantly solvent evaporation, oxidation or some chemical reaction. Gloss paints which dry essentially by solvent evaporation, rely on a fairly hard resin as the vehicle. Paints which dry by oxidation, the vehicle is usually an oil or an oil-based varnish, these usually contains driers to accelerate the drying of the oil. Paint based essentially on oil with suitable pigment such as titanium dioxide, extenders, and usually zinc-oxide and white lead, are conventional outside house paints because these materials give the combination of properties which meet this requirement (Osemeahon and Dimas, 2013).

On the other hand, Emulsion paint is commonly water-based, with acrylic or vinyl added to make it more durable and easier to apply to walls and ceilings. These are paints with water-soluble vehicle and they include, calcimines, in which the vehicle is glue and case-in paints. Emulsions are useful because they allow ways to deliver active materials in water which is inexpensive and innocuous. A related advantage of emulsions is they allow dilution of these active ingredients to an optimal concentration (Osemeahon and Dimas, 2013). Emulsions are commonly used in many major chemical industries. After an emulsion paint is applied, the water evaporates and the polymer particles pack closely and fuse together to form a continuous film. The use of water rather than an organic liquid means that emulsion paints produce fewer VOC (volatile organic compounds) when they are used.

Emulsion is the most popular paint for walls and a ceiling due to the fact that it is water based and has less smell, dries comparatively quickly and is easy to apply. This fact has necessitated the need to search for an appropriated paint binder which can challenge the good properties of oil paint on one hand and use water as a solvent on the other hand poly (vinyl acetate) (PVA), is one of such binders commonly used for emulsion paint formulation. On the contrary, paints derived from PVA are characterized by poor water, chemical and water resistances, flexibility, gloss and durability etc.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

In recent decades, conventional paints are more and more replaced by environmentally friendly formulas (Traumann et al., 2014)whose use is recommended due to ecological considerations, specifically the reduction of volatile organic compounds emissions (Tucaliuc, 2014) and economic aspectslow volumes of organic solvents which tend to have a limited availability and are expensive. Conventional paints (Oil-based paint) is superior to emulsion paint in many respects such as water resistant, flexibility, gloss and durability. However, despite the superiority of oil paint over emulsion paint many countries are now threatening to band it usage through appropriate legislation due to it negative effect to the environment (Habibu, 2011). Many functional chemical ingredients in paints are not water soluble and require alcohol or other organic solvents to form solutions. These solvents may be costly, hazardous to handle, or toxic. Due to these problems, it has becomes necessary to produce paint from local and synthesized materials. This give rise to the need to carryout this study on the use of local pigment and extender for the formulation and production of emulsion paints.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

Aim

The aim of this study is to use local pigment and extender for the formulation and production of emulsion paints.

Objectives

To identify the local pigment and extender that will be used for the production of emulsion paints
To determine thespecific gravity of emulsion paint
To determinetheresistance of the emulsion paints to wet abrasion paint
To determine the kinematic viscosity of the paint
To determinethe temperature stability of the paint
To determine the drying time of the paint produced

1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

The justification of this work is that

high quality local pigment and extenders are abundant in Nigeria and if properly sourced and processed by paint industries it will help in increasing the quantity of local paint, hence reducing the cost of paint production and conserve foreign exchange (forex) and
It will provide job opportunities and reduce unemployment in the country.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of this study includes the formulation and production of emulsion paint using locally available pigment and extender as a binder. Effects of some physical properties such as drying time, viscosity, elongational break, density, melting point, moisture uptake, refractive index was determined.

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

On considering the high cost of imported raw materials for the production of emulsion paint in the paint industry, which at the end of the production affect the market price, likewise causing economy constrain, there is need to lookout for those locally available raw materials such as pigments and extenders (e.g calcium carbonate) which will give such desirable qualities and properties as those of imported raw materials (e.g Titanium Dioxide).

It will be interesting to note that science and engineering have some of possible solutions towards reduction of high cost of emulsion paint production and also this research work is directed towards the vital needs for the use of local pigments and extenders as raw materials for the production of emulsion paint of high quality and standards which will stand the test of time and also compete with those emulsion paints produced with imported raw materials.

Finally, this research work will be of more importance to the paint manufacturers in the country, who spend lots of money for importations of raw materials, while they are bless with much raw materials as pigments and extenders for emulsion paint production in the country.

Tuesday, 1 February 2022

INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF GLUTAMINE AND GLUTATHIONE ON THE SELF LIFE OF KUNU ACHA

ABSTRACT

Acha (Digiteriaexilis and DigiteriaIburua) is a cereal crop which is grown across West Africa countries, is specified in Nigeria as an oldest crop. The grains are rich in methionine, an essential amino acid that is lacking in many major cereals. Acha is processed into Kunu (KunuAcha),which is a traditional non-alcoholic beverage widely consumed in the Northern parts of Nigeria especially during the dry season. There are many other types of kunuAcha which includes:Kununzaki, Kunungyada, Kununakamu, Kununtsamiya, Kununbaule, Kununjiko, Amshau and Kunungayamba. Generally, the shelf life of the above listed kunu including kunuAcha is two or three days. The effect of the biochemical preservatives used (glutamine and glutathione) is to increase the shelf life of kunuAcha. These preservatives limit the growth of microbes which contribute to the spoilage of nonalcoholic beverageskunuAcha. From the result showed, 0.5g of glutamine and 4.5 of glutathione in 340g of kunuAcha has the lowest microbial loads.The preservatives even though show effectiveness in limiting the growth of all the microbes analysed in the kunuAcha, the effect is much seen in the control of Sacrina by eliminating it completely and limit other species.The least effect of glutamine and glutathione in controlling the growth of microbes is seen in Bacilli specie growth.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Digitariaexilis and DigitariaIburua which is also knownwith other names such as Fonio, Findi, Fundi, Pom, and Kabug, in different West Africancountries and Acha in Nigeria has been reported as the oldest West African cereal (NRC, 1996). Annualproduction in West Africa, grown on about 380,000ha, is estimated to be about250, 000tons (Cruz, 2004). In Nigeria, annual yields of 3,098 metric tons, 112,000mtand 126,000mt have been reported (Abdullahi and Luka, 2003). The two Achaspecies,Digitariaexilisand DigitariaIburua grains are rich in methionine, an essential amino acid that is lacking in manymajor cereals (Temple and Bassa, 1991). The diets have relatively low free sugar and lowglycemic content and this makes it adequate as a suggested diet of diabetic patients.

1.1 Background of the Study

Acha is processed into Kunu (KunuAcha),which is a traditional non-alcoholic fermented beverage widely consumed in the Northern parts of Nigeria especially during the dry season (Temple and Bassa, 1991).Other types of Kunun processed and consumed in Nigeria includes; Kununzaki, Kunungyada, Kununakamu, Kununtsamiya, Kununbaule, Kununjiko, Amshau and Kunungayamba. Much research had been done on other types of KunuZaki and none has been done on KununAcha (Fonio) which is what agitated this research or investigation on the shelf life of the Kunu (Acha) using preservatives glutamine (GA) and glutathione (GT)

Statement of the Problem
Deterioration of KunuAcha starts fromtwo to three days after production,thusthe necessity to extend the shelf life for commercial production and economic enhancement cannot be over emphasized.
KununAcha also serves as an alternative food beverages for diabetes patient because of its low sugar contents.
The spent, Glutamine and Glutathione used as preservatives in the kunuAcha can lead to neural improvement and reduction of toxicity in human body. (www.benefitsofGlutamine.mobi )
1. Scope of the Work/Study

This project work focuses onproduction of KunuAcha and investigation of the effect of glutathione/glutamine on the shelf life of KunuAcha.

Aims and Objectives of the study

The aim of this work is to investigate the effect of glutathione/glutamine on the shelf life of KunuAcha through the following objectives:

Production of KunuAcha.
Variation of independent variables (concentration of glutamine/ glutathione) on fixed quantity of kunuAcha.
Measurement of the microbes in the controls and the treated samples.
Comparing and contrasting the effect of the preservatives in the treated samples and that of the controls.

Significance of the Study

The outcome of this project can lead to the commercial production of KunuAcha beverages which can also lead to commercial production of the crop. This can enhance economic wellbeing of Acha farmers, and also a very stable and available and affordable beverage.

Research Question
Can KunuAcha be produced and preserved using GA/GT?
At what ratio can GA/GT be added into Kunu to preserve without deterioration?
To what extend can the shelf life be maintained using Glutamine and Glutathione as preservatives?
1. Definition of Terms

For better understanding of the project work some terms need to be defined. The following gives the definition of some terms as used in the project.

Acha (Fonio): is term for two cultivated grains in the DigetariaGenuswhich are notable crops in Africa.
Kunu: is a traditional non-alcoholic fermented beveragewidely consumed in the Northern parts of Nigeria especiallyduring the dry season.
Preservatives: these are substance or chemicals used or added to products such as food, beverages and pharmaceuticals drugs etc.
Glutamine: is the most prevalentamino acid in the bloodstream and becausehuman cells readily synthesize it. It is found in high concentration in skeletal muscle, lung, liver, brain, and stomach tissue. When taken orally, has no side effect.
Glutathione: (the mother of all antioxidant) this is an antioxidant for detoxification, immune health in human body with no significant promise of dietary supplements.

Health benefits of Glutamine/Glutathione
Glutamine helps maintain cell volumes and hydration, speeding up wound and burn healing and recovery
Glutathione serve as immune booster, for body builders,
Glutamine is a primary energy source for immune system.
Glutamine can also cure ulcer! Studies have found that 1.6 grams of glutamine a day had a 92% cure rate of cancer.
Glutathione helps to clear neural problems and also reduce the toxicity of food and beverages drink or beer.
Glutamine is one of the important nutrient for intestine, it has the ability to repair a leaky gut by maintaining the structural integrity of the bowels.

Sunday, 2 January 2022

COMPARATIVE PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING OF Gongronema latifolium (UTAZI LEAVE) AND Moringa oleifera (HORSERADISH).

**COMPARATIVE PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING OF Gongronema latifolium (UTAZI LEAVE) AND Moringa oleifera (HORSERADISH).**

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

1.1 Phytochemicals

Plants are powerful biochemical and have components of phytomedicine since times immemorial. Man is able to obtain from them a wondrous assortment of industrial chemicals. Plant based natural constituent can be derived from any part of the plant like bark, leaves, flower, root, seeds e.t.c. (Gordon and David, 2001). Any part of the plant may contain active components. The beneficial medicinal effects of plant material typically result from the combination of secondary products present in the plant. The medicinal action of plants are unique to particular plant species. The systematic screening of plant species with the purpose of discovering new bioactive compounds is a routine activity in many laboratory in particular, the search for component with antimicrobial activity has gained increasing importance in recent times, due to growing worldwide concern about the alarming increase in the rate of infection by anti-biotic resistant microorganism (Davies, 1994). Hence, there is a constant need for new and effective chemotherapeutic agents. Many plant species have been utilized as traditional medicine but it is necessary to establish the scientific basis for the therapeutic action of traditional plant medicine as these may serve as the source for the development of more effective drugs. Scientific analysis of plant component follows a logical pathway. Plant are collected either randomly or by following lead supplied by local healers in geographical area when the plant are found. (Vileges, et al., 1994).

In recognition of this fact, the World Health Organization (WHO) has been attempting to incorporate traditional medicine officially into the health care systems of developing nations. In 1998, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the World Wild Fund (WWF), together with WHO brought health professionals and leading conservationist together in Thailand to produce a set of guidelines for countries wishing to make the best use of their medicinal herbs/ plants and to conserve them for the future. They stressed the vital importance of these plants in primary health care and the great potential of the plant kingdom to provide new drugs (Silva, 1998). Several countries already boast their systems in which traditional plant-based medicine is officially accepted. However, it is apparent that, there exists a significant difference in the way in which western scientists view an illness and its cure, and the way it is perceived else where. It is often at a loss to explain how plants are used directly, especially in a traditional manner which sometimes involves rituals and supernatural intervention (Busia, 2005). In essence, all plants are by nature living chemical factories, and it is the complex substances that they produce that we have mostly used to help keep us healthy. Apart from the medicinal properties of these plants, some serve as a good source of food and shelter for man. And thus, the ability of plants to be converted to orthodox medicine used to relieve pain and effect cure is often seen in some parts of the plants. These parts are the stem barks, root barks, fruits, seeds, leaves and root. (Leckridge, 2004). The medicinal value of drugs is due to the presence of certain substances such as alkaloid, saponin etc. these are known as active principles. They are commonly found or more concentrated in the storage organs of plant such as roots, bark, leaves and seeds.

Gongronema latifolium: This class of medicinal plants is beneficial in preventing and treating certain diseases and ailments that are detrimental to human health. The leaves, which can be chewed, infused or used for cooking, are mainly used in the Western part of Africa for nutritional and medicinal reason. Utazi has a characteristic sharp, bitter and slightly sweet taste, especially when eaten fresh. It contains essential oils, glycoside, alkaloids, saponins and tannin, various minerals, vitamins and some essential amino acids. The leaves have very high nutritional value and contain nutrients like potassium, calcium, sodium, proteins, copper, manganese, and fibre.

Moringa oleifera: This is a highly valued plant, distributed in many countries of the tropics and subtropics. It has an impressive range of medicinal uses with high nutrition value. Different parts of this plant contain a profile of important minerals, and is a good source of protein, vitamin, B carotene, amino acids, and various phenolics. In addition to its compelling water purifying powers and high nutritional value, Moringa oleifera is very important for its medicinal value. Various part of this plant such as the leaves, roots, seed, bark, fruit, flowers and immature pods acts as cardiac and circulatory stimulants, possess antitumor, antipyretic, antiepileptic, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, antispasmodic, diuretic, antihypertensive, cholesterol lowering, antioxidant, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, antibacterial and antifungal activities.

Background of the Study

One of the increasing differences between citizens of developed nations and the developing ones is clearly expressed in the quality of life that is led by them. In Nigeria and Africa at large, the average life expectancy is less than 55 years (WHO, 2014). In contrary to this figure, the average of those in developed nations was put at 71 years (WHO, 2013). This stunning difference calls for concern and essentially erodes the need to embark on policy backed scientific investigation into palpable reasons for this phenomenon. Emerging facts show that primary to quality of life when drive they determines the life expectancy index among other variables in the quality of health nutrition of a people and closely knitted to this are the availability and access to medicine and health practitioners. However, the problem of wide spread poverty which translates into inability to afford both good food nutrition and medical care is a challenge and factor that, in most cases, constrains most of the local people to rely heavily on locally available foods and plants herbs for treatment of diseases when the occasion arises. Having considered the above, it is important to state that government and stakeholders are beginning to lay emphasis on the need to co-opt ethno medicine into mainstream practice as a way of augmenting shortfalls in its obligations in providing healthcare to local populace. The Federal College of Alternative Medicine (FEDCAM) is one of the few examples that readily comes to mind. Thus, on this basis, there is an increased and continuous research on various plant types both by health nutritionist and pharmacologist with the aim of identifying valuable nutritive and medicinal plants for health needs and challenges. The conscious effort to investigate the chemical compositions of the sample leafy vegetable in this more is influenced by the sustained use of the vegetable over the ages either as simple food or herbal medicine. Thus, testing the leafy vegetable to ascertain the presence and amount of phytochemicals compositions alongside proximate and antinutrient is to enable a statement of affirmation or otherwise of the M. oleifera and G.latifolium, as a plant of high value in the health needs of the populace and should therefore, be given proper publicity to encourage increased domestic cultivation and consumption of the vegetable.

It is against the backdrops of the foregoing that the efforts at research on the leaves are embarked upon to validate, refute or add to existing body of findings on the sample leaf of fact found during this work. While attention will be given to testing, screening to detect and determine through quantitative analysis of test results. It is hoped that emerging facts will be of immense help to anticipated end users.

Phytochemicals

Phytochemicals are a large group of plant derived compounds hypothesized to be responsible for much of the disease protection conferred from diets high in fruits, vegetables, beans, cereals, and plant based beverages such as tea and wine. Phytochemicals can be broken into the following groups, Flavonoids, Phenols, Steroids, Tannin, Glycoside and Alkaloid and many others.

Statement of the Research Problem

With the ever increasing need and challenges in society, the use of Moringa oleifera (Horseradish) And Gongronema latifolium, (Utazi) Leaves has been acknowledged as some of the common leafy vegetables used in communities as herbs for ethnomedicine in treating a variety of diseases and also serves as staple nutritive vegetable.

The research problem is that of attempt of investigating the presence of phytochemicals composition in the Gongronema latifolium and Moringa oleifera which may have satisfactorily encouraged their uses over the ages.

Aim and Objectives

To determine the qualitative analysis of constituents that make up the phy tochemical in Gongronema latifolium and Moringa oleiferaleaves.

To carryout comparative analysis on the phytochemicals present in the leaves of the two plants.

Scope of Study

This study focuses on the leaves of Gongronema latifolium and Moringa oleifera, there phytochemical contents.

Friday, 31 December 2021

PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF AFRICAN PEAR

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Plants are important in our everyday existence. They provide our foods, produce the oxygen we breathe, and serve as raw materials for many industrial products such as clothes, foot wears and so many others. Plants also provide raw materials for our buildings and in the manufacture of biofuels, dyes, perfumes, pesticides, adsorbents and drugs. The plant kingdom has proven to be the most useful in the treatment of diseases and they provide an important source of all the world’s pharmaceuticals. The most important of these bioactive constituents of plants are steroids, terpenoids, carotenoids, flavanoids, alkaloids, tannins and glycosides. Plants in all facet of life have served a valuable starting material for drug development (Ajibesin, 2011).

Antibiotics or antimicrobial substances like saponins, glycosides, flavonoids and alkaloids etc are found to be distributed in plants, yet these compounds were not well established due to the lack of knowledge and techniques. The phytoconstituents which are phenols, anthraquinones, alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids and saponins are antibiotic principles of plants. Plants are now occupying important position in allopathic medicine, herbal medicine, homoeopathy and aromatherapy. Medicinal plants are the sources of many important drugs of the modern world. Many of these indigenous medicinal plants are used as spices and food plants; they are also sometimes added to foods meant for pregnant mothers for medicinal purposes (Akinpela and Onakoya, 2006). Many plants are cheaper and more accessible to most people especially in the developing countries than orthodox medicine, and there is lower incidence of adverse effects after use. These reasons might account for their worldwide attention and use. The medicinal properties of some plants have been documented by some researchers ( Akinpelu and Onukoya, 2006).

Medicinal plants are of great importance to the health of individuals and communities. It was the advent of antibiotics in the 1950s that led to the decline of the use of plant derivatives as antimicrobials (Marjorie, 1999). Medicinal plants contain physiologically active components which over the years have been exploited in the traditional medical practices for the treatment of various ailments (Ajibesin, 2011). A relatively small percentage of less than 10% of all the plants on earth is believed to serve as sources of medicine (Marjorie, 1999).

In an effort to find alternative sources of feedstuffs to replace some or all of the maize in the diet of pigs and other non-ruminant farm animals, several studies have been conducted to determine the suitability of some agro-industrial wastes as feed ingredients.

These include cocoa pod husks, brewers spent grains, rice bran, maize bran, groundnut skins, and wheat bran. However, one by-product that requires consideration is cashew nut testa, a by-product obtained from the processing of cashew nuts. Its utilization as animal feed even at relatively low dosage formulations will minimize its disposal problem as well as reduce the cost of animal feeding.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

It is now known that agricultural materials are used as animal feeds and that they contain phytochemicals. These phytochemicals serve as antibiotic principles of plants.

The need for a cheap, renewable, easily available and nutritive source of material as feed supplements has therefore attracted me to investigate African pear leaf, (APL) as an alternative.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

Broadly stated, the purpose of this work is to investigate/assess the nutritive and medicinal values of African pear leaf as an effective replacement in animal diets. Specifically, this work investigated:

The proximate constituents of African pear leaf; and
The qualitative and quantitative phytochemicals of African pear leaf.

Thursday, 30 December 2021

PRODUCTION OF COCONUT OIL FROM COCONUT

ABSTRACT

This study was carried out to extract coconut oil from coconut. Coconut oil (Cocos nucifera L.) has a unique role in the diet as an important physiologically functional food. The health and nutritional benefits that can be derived from consuming coconut oil have been recognized in many parts of the world for centuries. There are few techniques for coconut oil extraction, such as physical, chemical, and fermentation or enzymatic processes using microbial inoculum as enzymatic starter. Starter with different concentration (1.0; 2.5; 5.0; and 10%) of microbial strains were added into coconut cream and allowed to be fermented for over night. The extracted oil was analyzed for further experiment, especially on its antibacterial activity. The maximum yield of 27.2% was achieved by adding 5.0% starter. Water content, acid value, FFA, and peroxide value of the fermented coconut oil were 0.3%, 0.45%, 0.22% and 2.54% respectively. A gas chromatogram showed that this fermented oil contained high lauric acid (46.82%), and 6.01% caprylic, 7.5% capric, 17.02% miristic, 7.21% palmitic, 3.11% palmitoleic, 5.41% stearic, and 1.3% linoleic acid, respectively. An inhibitory effect of such kind coconut oil which contains potential fatty acid against bacterial growth was further examined. It was found that this edible oil exhibited antibacterial activity to inhibit the growth of Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas fluorescence, Bacillus cereus and Salmonella; however it showed slightly inhibitory effect when it was exposed to Bacillus cereus and Escherichia coli.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

Oil is extracted from a number of fruits, nut and seed for use in cooking and soap making or as an ingredient in other foods such as boiled or fried food. Oil is a valuable product with universal demand and the possible income from oil extraction is therefore often enough to justify the relatively high cost of setting up and running small-scale oil milling business.

Coconut oil is an edible oil extracted from kernel or meat of matured coconut harvested from the palm (Cocos nucifera). It has various applications in food, medicine and industry (UNIFEM, 1987).

Coconut (Cocos nucifera) grown in about 93 countries in the area of 11.8million has produces 10.9million tones of copra equivalent. Coconuts provide food, drinks, medicine, health, shelter and aesthetics. Since every part of coconut is used for mankind, it is grown as tree of life, or rather “tree of nature” one of the natural product of coconut is that coconut oil has been used from time immemorial as foods, Food ingredient and functional foods, besides used in pharmaceuticals, nutriceuticals, cosmetics and industrial uses including bio fuel, It is known as miracle oil.

Historically, coconut and their extracted oil have served man as important foods for thousands of years. The use of coconut oil was advertised in the united state, in the popular cook book at the end of 19^th century. Both the health promoting attribute of coconut oil and those functional properties useful to the homemaker were recognized 100 years ago. These attributes, in addition to some new attributes should be great interest of producing as well as consuming countries (Ellis, 1997).

Coconut oil has been a life saver for many people. The health and nutritional benefit derived from coconut oil is unique and compelling (Enig, 1998) had stated that medium chain triglycerides, a fraction of coconut oil has been identified as an important, medically efficacious food. Indeed, diet for critically ill children, premature infants and hospitalized partners used medium chain triglycerides as principle source of fat. Coconut oil when used in usual diets containing all classes of fat proves to be anticholesterogenic.

Coconut oil can be extracted through dry or wet processing. The dry processing require the meat to be extracted from the meat and it is been dried using fire, sunlight or kilns to create copra. The copra is dried under sunlight for a maximum of seven days and a minimum of five days. While wet processing uses raw coconut rather than dried copra i.e. a fresh matured coconut. Different method can be used in extracting oil from coconut and the method must be efficient for the extraction in order to yield the desired result.

1.1 Historical Background

The coconut(Cocos nucifera) is a member of the family Arecaceae (palm family) and is one of the nature’s gifts to mankind (William, 1997).

It is the only accepted species in the genus Cocos, and is a large palm, growing up to 30m tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 m long, and pinnae 60–90 cm long; old leaves break away cleanly, leaving the trunk smooth and the term coconut can refer to the entire coconut palm, the seed, or the fruit, which is not a botanical nut (World Wildlife Fund, 2010).

Coconut has been part of peoples’ diet and livelihoods in the tropical countries of Asia, the Pacific, South and Central America and Africa for thousands of years. In these areas, native meals are cooked with either coconut milk or coconut oil. The coconut palm is grown throughout the tropics for decoration, as well as for its many culinary and non-culinary uses; virtually every part of the coconut palm can be utilized by humans in some manner. However, the extent of cultivation in the tropics is threatening a number of habitats such as mangroves; an example of such damage to an ecoregion is in the Petenes mangroves of the Yucatan (Foale, 2003).

Coconut palms are believed to be largely cross-pollinated, although some dwarf varieties are self-pollinating. The meat of the coconut is the edible endosperm, located on the inner surface of the shell. Inside the endosperm layer, coconuts contain an edible clear liquid that is sweet, salty, or both (Fife, 2005).

Although coconut meat contains less fat than many oilseeds and nuts such as almonds, it is noted for its high amount of medium-chain saturated fat and about 90% of the fat found in coconut meat is saturated, a proportion exceeding that of foods such as lard, butter, and tallow. There has been some debate as to whether or not the saturated fat in coconuts is less unhealthy than other forms of saturated fat (see coconut oil). Like most nut meats, coconut meat contains less sugar and more protein than popular fruits such as bananas, apples and oranges. It is relatively high in minerals such as iron, phosphorus and zinc.

Coconut oil is extracted from the kernel or meat of matured coconut harvested from the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera). Throughout the tropical world it has provided the primary source of fat in the diets of millions of people for generations. It has various applications in food, medicine, and industry. Coconut oil is very heat stable so it makes an excellent cooking and frying oil. It has a smoke point of about 360°F (180°C). Because of its stability it is slow to oxidize and thus resistant to rancidity, lasting up to two years due to high saturated fat content. In the wet process, coconut milk is made first and then the oil is extracted from the milk (Fife, 2005).

Coconut kernel is shredded and mixed with water. Then it is pressed and the oil is extracted. The resulting oil/water mixture is left to sit and it separates into two layers, watery on the bottom, creamy on top. The thicker cream is decanted off the top and the original method of separation involved heating or fermenting the milk to separate the oil. This traditional method made a very unstable oil with a short shelf life meant for quick daily use. Due to its miscible nature coconut oil cannot be separated naturally from the cream (Ohler, 1984).

All high volume modern methods incorporate heating, fermentation, and or centrifugal force to separate the oil from the water. Some minor heating is generally done afterwards (often in a low temperature vacuum chamber) to drive off excess moisture and produce a more purified product and to extend shelf life. Proper harvesting of the coconut (the age of a coconut can be 2 to 20 months when picked; the time of harvesting makes a significant difference in the efficiency of the oil making process) and the use of a centrifuge process make the best final extracted product (Woodruff,1970).

1.2 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this project is to extract coconut oil from coconut using fermentation or enzymatic processes with microbial inoculum as enzymatic starter

PHYTOCHEMICAL AND MINERAL ANALYSIS OF UNRIPE CARICA PAPAYA AND MUSA PARADISIACA

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the phytochemical of unripe carica papaya and Musa paradisiaca peel, seed and flesh which are commonly discarded as food wastes. Using standard methods of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC), Mineral analysis of the samples were performed using Energy dispersive X – ray Fluorescence (EDXRF). The phytochemical screening was carried out using water, acetone and ethanol extracts of the peel, seed, and flesh was also carried out in accordance to standard methods of (AOAC). The results showed, the ethanol extract of unripe carica papaya flesh showed the presence of steroids, terpenoid, flavonoid, tannins, phlobatannins, cardiac glycosides, saponins, and alkaloid, while the seed and peel showed the presence of terpenoid, flavonoid, tannins, phlobatannins, alkaloid and steroid, terpenoid, phlobatannins, cardiac glycosides, alkaloid respectively. The ethanol extract of unripe Musa paradisiaca flesh and peel showed the presence of steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, saponins, alkaloid and terpenoids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, saponins, alkaloid respectively. The results showed, the acetone extract of unripe carica papaya flesh showed the presence of terpenoid, flavonoid, phlobatannins, and cardiac glycosides, while the seed and peel showed the presence of steroid and terpenoid, flavonoid, cardiac glycosides, alkaloid respectively. The ethanol extract of unripe Musa paradisiaca flesh and peel showed the presence of steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, saponins, alkaloid and steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, saponins, alkaloid respectively. The results showed, the water extract of unripe carica papaya flesh showed the presence of terpenoid, flavonoid, phlobatannins, cardiac glycosides, saponins, and alkaloid, while the seed and peel showed the presence of saponins and steroid, flavonoids, tannins, phlobatannins respectively. The ethanol extract of unripe Musa paradisiaca flesh and peel showed the presence of terpenoids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, alkaloid and terpenoids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, saponins, alkaloid respectively. The mineral analysis revealed the presence (Ca > Fe > Rb > Zn > K > Cu > Ti > Mn > Cr > Ni > Se) in seed, (Ca > Fe > K > Mn > Ti > Ni > Cu > Zn > Cr) and (Ca > Fe > K > Rb > Cu > Ni) in peel and flesh of carica papaya respectively. While the flesh and peel of musa paradisiaca revealed the following minerals (K > Ca > Fe > Ti > Cu > Ni > Mn > Se >Rb) and (Ca > Fe > K > Mn > Ti > Ni > Cu > Zn) respectively. Notably, few of the heavy metals (Ti, Cr, Rb, Ni) assayed was detected in few of the samples. This study concludes that unripe carica papaya and unripe Musa paradisiaca peels, flesh, and seeds could serve as promising sources of nutrients and bioactive compounds essential for the health of both livestock and humans.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0. INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Phytochemicals are compounds that occur naturally in plants. They contribute to the color, flavor and smell of plants. They form part of plants natural defense mechanism against diseases. Their presence in plant gives its medicinal value and produce physiological action in human body (Uzama et al., 2013). Some of the phytochemicals are water soluble while others are not (Adefagha and Oboh, 2011).

Some of these important groups of phytochemicals include phenolics of various types including flavonoids such as resversterol, catechins, anthocyanins and isoflavones as well as phenolic acids and lignin (Steinmet et al., 2000). Flavonoids are super antioxidants and free radical scavengers. They prevent oxidative cell damage caused by these free radicals. In this way they prevent chronic diseases such as cancer and tumours, and provide anti inflammatory actions (Okwu, 2001A and Okwu, 2001B), Saponins cause the haemolysis of cells, they prevent cancer by preventing DNA from damage. They are also antiviral and they can be cardio-protective through their ability to lower blood Cholesterol level (Coe and Anderson, 2001).

Alkaloids seems to be the most significantly and efficiently phytochemical in terms of therapeutic use. They form precursors for the synthesis of drugs when isolated in pure form. They show high physiological effect on animals and humans. (Okwu, 2001A).

Carica papaya Linnaeus, (pawpaw), belongs to the family of Caricaceae. Papaya is not a tree but an herbaceous succulent plants that posses rapid growth rate and self supporting stems. (Dick Gross, 2003). Papaya is a large perennial herb with a rapid growth rate. The plants are usually short-lived, and has complicated means of reproduction. The plants are male, hermaphrodite, or female (Bruce and Peter, 2008).The male plants are uncommon, but sometimes occur when homeowners collect their own seeds. These plants are self pollinated (Jari, 2009). The papaya fruit, as well as all other parts of the plant, contain a milky juice in which an active substance known as papain is present. The seed is used for intestinal worms when chewed. The unripe fruit is used as a remedy for ulcer and impotence. Chewing the seeds of ripe pawpaw fruit also helps to clear nasal congestion, (Elizabeth, 2018).

The fruits are big oval in shape and sometimes called pepo– like berries, since they resemble melon by having a central seed cavity (Fig. 1). Fruits are borne axillary on the main stem, usually singly but sometimes in small clusters. Fruits weigh from 226.796 up to 9071.85g, and are green unlike ripe, turning yellow or orange when ripe. The edible portion surrounds the large central seed cavity. Plants begin bearing fruits in 6-12 months (Vijay et al., 2014) depending on cultivation and temperature.

Musa paradisiacal (Plantain) is an herbaceous plant (up to 9 m long) with a robust tree like pseudostem, a crown of large elongated oval deep-green leaves (up to 365 cm in length and 61 cm in width) with a prominent midrib. Plantain fruits are oblong, fleshy, 5-7cm long in natural form and longer in the cultivated varieties. The ripe fruits are sweet and full of seeds and the peel is thicker than other banana. The fruit usually harvested at it’s mature but unripe stage, ripens within two to seven days, thus making plantain a highly perishable crop, particularly in the overripe stage (FAO, 2010). It is usually eaten as an energy yielding food. Its hypoglycemic actions in diabetic animals have been reported (Ojewole et al., 2003). An average plantain has about 220 calories and is a good source of potassium and dietary fiber. It is rich in carbohydrate, iron, vitamins and minerals. The nutritious food is ideal for diabetes, children and pregnant women. Its regular consumption helps to cure anemia and maintain a healthy heart (Ibeam et al., 2016).

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study is to determine the phytochemical and mineral composition of unripe Carica papaya (peel, seed and flesh) and Musa paradisiaca (peel and flesh)

The objectives which this research intends to achieve include the following;

Sample Extraction using ethanol, acetone and water.
To determine the photochemicals: tannin, steroids, saponins, flavanoids, cardiac glycosides, terperiods alkaloids and phlobatanns content of the unripe Carica papaya and Musa paradisiaca.
To determine the minerals composition of the unripe Carica papaya and Musa paradisiaca.
To statistically compare the phytochemical and mineral content of the unripe Carica papaya and Musa paradisiaca.

1.3. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The use of unripe Carica papaya and Musa paradisiaca as food and medicine has not been given much attention; therefore, this research work tends to investigate the phytochemical and minerals potential of flesh, seeds, and peels of both plants.

1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of this work is to identify new sources of therapeutical and industrial important compounds like alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, saponins, steroids, tannins, terpenoids and the nutritional values of unripe Carica papaya and Musa paradisiacal to human health.

1.5. SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This research work is restricted to the phytochemical and mineral composition of unripe Carica papaya (peel, seed and flesh) and unripe Musa paradisiaca (peel and flesh)sold in Nasarawa Main Market, Nasarawa State. The limitation of this research work is due to inadequate power supply during the experimental stage and cost of carrying out the experiment.

PHYSIOCHEMICAL AND ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF COTTON SEED AND LEAF

ABSTRACT

This study aimed to evaluate the antioxidant activity of chloroform extract of cotton seed and methanol extract of cotton leaf. The seed and leaf from Gossypium hirsutum L. was collected, air dried, powdered and subjected to chloroform and methanol extraction respectively and these extracts were screened phytochemically for their chemical constituents. Using standard phytochemical analysis procedures, results revealed the presence of tannins, saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids, carbohydrates, steroids and so on. The antioxidant activity of chloroform and methanol extracts of Gossypium hirsutum L. was determined by DPPH (2, 2 diphenyl-2- 2 picryhydrazyl) free radical scavenging assay. The chloroform seed extract and methanol leaf extract of Gossypium hirsutum L. had shown very significant DPPH free radical scavenging activity of the extracts was increased with increasing concentration. The result concluded that the seed and leaf of Gossypium hirsutum L. extracts have a potential source of antioxidants of natural origin and which can also be used in several applications requiring this property

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 MEDICINAL PROPERTIES

Medicinal plants are the sources of many scientific drugs of the modern world. Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) seed oil and leaf is among the most common vegetable oils used in the US. Referred to as “America’s original vegetable oil,” it has been a part of the American diet since the 1800s and has been in high demand among consumers since then. The health benefits of consuming cottonseed oil and leaf include; it helps to reduce the chances of cardiovascular and heart issues like stroke, clogged arterial condition, and heart attacks, it promotes neurological health & memory, it helps in regulating body weight, it is beneficial for breastfeeding mothers in the sense that it help in producing breast milk when it consume as tea, it helps in reducing the chances of blood pressure in humans and regulates the same as well, it helps to prevent the chances of cancers etc.

1.2 PLANT OF STUDY

Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) belongs to the Malvaceaefamily with origins in tropical and subtropical areas. Thegenus Gossypium includes nearly 50 species. It is one of themost significant fiber producing plants providing fiber forthe textile industry. Cotton plants are an annually growing herb belonging to the genus Gossypium of the Malvaceae family (mallow family). Cotton is an essential fiber plant native to tropical and subtropical Americas, the Caribbean, and questionably some Pacific islands. It is cultivated for its fiber used by the textile industry to produce a great variety of apparel and fabrics. Cotton seeds containing 20 to 28 % oil are used to produce oil and are a valuable source of protein. It is quite unusual in that it is concurrently both a food and fiber crop. Apart from cotton it is also known as upland Cotton, Mexican Cotton, American cotton, American upland cotton and Bourbon cotton.

1.2.1 Plant

Cotton is an annual or perennial herb or shrub which grows from 40 to 45 cm to 1.5 to 2 m tall. The plant requires a long frost-free period, plenty of sunshine, and a moderate rainfall and tolerant of a wide variety of soils, but thrives best on deep, friable, moisture-holding soils with good humus supply. It has a well-developed taproot with numerous laterals penetrating as deeply as 3 m. Branches are of two kinds: vegetative and fruiting. Leaves are broad and heart shaped three-segmented greenish leaves, which are about 2 inches to 6 inches in length and emerge alternately on the stem. Flowers are cup-shaped with big and flashy petals whose hue ranges from white to yellow. The flowers have a purplish or reddish spot close to their base.

1.2.2 Fruit

Fruit of cotton is actually a leathery capsule called boll. Capsules are up to 4-6 cm long, spherical, smooth broadly ovoid to sub globose; beaked at tip; 3-5-celled, each cell contains up to 11 copiously hairy and fuzzy seeds. They are normally green while young turning to brown as they mature. Seeds are usually ovoid, 3.5–10 mm long, acute at the hilum, black or brown with a dense covering of white or rusty, long, woolly hairs (lint or floss) and with a fine, short tomentum (fuzz) everywhere or only at the hilum, about 36 per fruit. The weights of 100 seeds are about 10–13 g. By weight, they are 60% cotyledon, 32% coat and 8% embryonic root and shoot. Cultured cotton varieties’ fiber is mostly white. However, some varieties have colored fiber, which may be brown, green or creamy-colored. Technological properties of cotton fiber depend on the following values: fiber length, thinness, strength, breaking length, elasticity, crimpiness, and maturity.

Cottonseed, which must be removed from the fibers during “ginning,” is processed into oil by crushing, and is also used as a supplement for dairy feed, especially in California. Cottonseed oil is used in the industry of food (as an ingredient of margarines) and in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industry. It is also used for the production rubber and plastics.

Cotton seed is rich in oil (18–24%) andprotein (20–40%) and is utilized in the feed and oil industries.Agricultural economists have identified cotton as aneconomical plant creating jobs for 350 million people fromthe farm to processed products (Wendel et al. 2009). Underunsuitable storage conditions, cotton seeds containing highconcentrations of oil are more susceptible to deterioration(Iqbaletal. 2007). Starch immobilization involves the transportation of sugars to theembryo of the seed where it is used.

The development and regulation of amylase activity duringgermination are best observed in the seed of the plant. In the dry seed, there is low level of beta amylase activity inthe starchy endosperm and decreased alpha amylase activity(Ernst 2006). It is well known that anatomic studies ofthe seed can be used to determine seed health, as well asthe state of structural changes in the plant seed under stress(Mashinsky and Nechitailo2007). Previous work has primarilyfocused on changes in metabolites in plants undergoing stress. Current research has attempted to distinguish theposition of these metabolites in cell and tissues (Gershenzon2006; Ashraf and Foolad2006; Mahajan and Tuteja2006).

1.2.3 Leaves

Tree cotton branches are covered with pubescence and are purple in color. Stipules are present at the leaf base and they are linear to lanceolate in shape and sometimes falcate (i.e. sickle-shaped). Leaves are attached to the stem by a 1.5 to 10 cm petiole. Blades are ovate to orbicular in shape and have five to seven lobes, making them superficially resemble a maple leaf. Lobes are linear to lanceolate, and often a tooth is present in the sinus. Glands are present along the midrib or occasionally on the adjacent nerves. Leaves are glabrescent, meaning the pubescence is lost with age, but when it is present on young leaves, it is both stellate (i.e. star-shaped) and simple.

1.3AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the study is to determine the phytochemicals and antioxidant activity of seed and leaf of cotton(Gossypium hirsutum L.)

1.4OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

To get extract from cotton seed and leaf

To determine the antioxidants activity of plant using DPPH reagent

To also carry out phytochemical screening on the samples for the presence of secondary metabolite

1.5STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

Exogenous antioxidants can be derived from natural sources (vitamins, flavonoids, anthocyanins, some mineral compounds), but can also be synthetic compounds, like butylhydroxyanisole, butylhydroxytoluene, gallates, etc.Tache A, et al (2011). There is an increasing interest in antioxidants, particularly in those intended to prevent the presumed deleterious effects of free radicals in human body, as well as the deterioration of fats and other constituents of food stuff. (Molynex P. 2006). Studies on (Gossypium hirsutum L.) cotton seed and leaf will prove its antioxidant effect and also it’s important to the society and organic chemistry field.

1.6 JUSTIFICATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

Cotton seed and leaf have become important in food and pharmaceutical industries with many as a result of many applications being considered effective in treating many human afflictions. Incorporation of these cotton seed and leaf in food and pharmaceutical industries can replace other antioxidants because they contain a lot of phytochemicals. There is need to produce natural antioxidant with lesser side effect, hence, the need for antioxidant from cottonseeds and leaf.

Tuesday, 28 December 2021

PRODUCTION OF BRIQUETTE FROM BIOMASS USING CASSAVA STARCH AS A BINDER

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Agricultural waste (by-products) management during processing is one of the most serious rural-urban environmental problems in developing countries. Several tonnes of agricultural by-products such as groundnut shell, sugar cane baggasse, rice husk, maize stalk, palm kernel shell and others are generated in Nigeria annually which constitute environmental hazard and when burnt off result in air pollution. The average tonnage of excess baggasse produced per year is over 24,000 tons.(Kaur, Kumar, Singh, & Kundu, 2017)By-products from Agricultural processing can be transformed into more useful products like briquettes, which provide important alternative sources of energy for domestic use (cooking fuel). It is noted that wood in form of fuel wood and charcoal constituted the major source of renewable energy accounting for about 51% of the total energy consumption in Nigeria. Others include natural gas (5.2%), hydroelectricity (3.1%) and petroleum products (41.3%) However, the decreasing availability of wood, coupled with the ever rising cost of kerosene and cooking gas in Nigeria is forcing energy users to consider alternative sources of energy for domestic uses. One energy source that could find ready utilization is the fuel briquette(Grover & Mishra, 1996b). Uses of biomass fuel such as composite sawdust briquette have been found to be a good source of renewable energy for domestic cooking. In seventeenth century, the rural poor often burn dried cow dung because of the acute shortage of wood fuel and wide spread deforestation. The conversion of Agricultural by-products, wood waste and coal dust to high energy value briquettes for cooking and drying have been investigated and found to be feasible.(Grover & Mishra, 1996b)

1.2 Problem Statement

Solid waste management is one of the major problems in Nigeria. This is not only found in the urban areas but also at the rural areas. The major waste generated at the rural areas is agricultural waste or residue (crop by-product). Despite this level of waste generation of fuel for heating, cooking and other purposes is a huge problem; hence the rural folks rely on wood fuel and charcoal.(Grover & Mishra, 1996b). The realization that deforestation and wood fuel shortages are likely to become serious problems in Nigeria has turned attention to other types of biomass fuel. In 1992 it was estimated that about 1.5 million hectares of forest remained in Nigeria, with high rate of deforestation.

Agricultural residues are, in principle, one of the major sources.(Grover & Mishra, 1996a) The use of briquetting for conversion of agricultural residues is comparatively recent, however, and has only been taken up in developing countries in the last few years. Main agricultural residues that are produced are saw dust, coconut shell, groundnut shell, jatropha husk, sugarcane baggase, palm nut shell, rice husk, maize cob and cotton stem. Beside the problem of transportation, storage and operation, open burning of this bio waste with traditional style without control can cause critical air pollution.(Grover & Mishra, 1996a) The use of biomass therefore does not contribute to a buildup of CO2 in the atmosphere. Hence the need at the moment in the densification of this agricultural waste in developing countries is the development of an appropriate briquetting machine suitable to the local communities. For biomass to make a significant impact as fuel for rural communities, it is imperative that an efficient, cost effective and easy to duplicate technology is developed specifically for rural communities..(Moral & Rahman, 2001)

1.3 Aims and Objectives

The aim of this project research is to develop an alternative fuel from biomass using saw dust, rice husk, and groundnut shell using starch as binder through the following objectives;

To produce and process optimization of briquettes from different agricultural waste with suitable binder.
To determine the strength, properties and characterization of biomass briquettes.
To provide manufacturers with an improved technology to turn agricultural and forest residues into a suitable fuel for industrial and institutional use.

1.4 Significance of the Study

This study can give information about the potential of agricultural wastes as a source of making biomass briquettes. In response to the growing concern about the hateful effect of burning biomass residue which causes pollution in the society, this study focuses on the production of biomass briquettes from saw dust, rice husks and groundnut shells. The successes of this study will confirm the efficiency of biomass briquette and the fuel property.

1.5 Scope and Limitations This study will utilize the biomass residue which is collected from the biomass residue dump unit as the raw material for the production of biomass briquette. The analysis of the sample will be done in Nigeria Institute of Leather and Science Technology, Zaria, in Kaduna state. This project will focus on the physical properties, efficiency and the moisture content of the biomass briquette produced. Also this study will be conducted as a lab study, and if successful it will be proceed for large-scale production.