Showing posts with label CHEMISTRY. Show all posts

Saturday, 8 April 2023

PRODUCTION AND APPLICATION OF DYES FROM DIFFERENT PLANT PARTS

PRODUCTION AND APPLICATION OF DYES FROM DIFFERENT PLANT PARTS

ABSTRACT

Environmental pollution as well as the global prevailing economic problems has necessitated the need to utilize indigenous natural resources as dye materials due to their environmental friendliness, easy availability, and lower price compared to the synthetic dyes. This study was carried out to investigate the dyeing properties of solvent extracts of different parts of three local plants; seed of Kola nut (Cola acuminate), stem of Ginger (Zingiber officinale) and outer skin of Onion (Allium sepa). The fastness property of the dye extracts was tested on white different fabrics which are cotton, nylon, polyester and silk the extracts shows to be stable on cotton fabric than the other fabrics. When the test fabrics were treated with mordant ( Potassium permanganate, Potassium dichromate, Copper sulphate and Cobalt tetrachloride)and the dye extracts were used on them they changes color to different shades of brown, some pink and their fastness properties greatly increases to be more stable to light and wash. The dye extract from kola nut has the highest yield (5.51 %) followed by ginger extract (3.26 %) and then the onion extract (1.23 %.).

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Although dyes abound in the natural environment, dyes can also be formed in different ways and used in different applications depending on their manufacturing process. Dyes can be formed by using chemicals like acids or extracted from earth and mineral sources. Natural dyes can be obtained even from our own backyards and used to color fabric and other household items. These include various parts of plants such as flowers, roots, and nuts which can be processed to obtain many colors. Natural dyes produce vibrant colors, creating a palette that is compatible and blend with each other.

Adu-Akwaboa (1994) shares the view that natural dyes of various colors can be obtained from many local plants in Nigeria and that dyes can be extracted from barks of trees, leaves, roots, seeds, fruits, flowers, or the young shoots. Similarly, Harris (1995) asserts that plants in the environment can be exploited to achieve natural colors of various shades to color natural fibers and textiles by means of dyeing, printing or painting. Harris mentions that the roots of some species of the madder plant which could be grown practically everywhere were used from the earliest times to produce a whole range of reds. Red animal dyes derived from certain species of scale insects were also highly valued from ancient times and right through the Middle Ages. The literature indicates that until the 19th century, all dyes were derived from vegetable or more rarely animal or mineral sources. By the early part of the last century, only a small percentage of textile dyes were extracted from plants. Dye is a soluble colored compound which is a widely used material in almost all industries. The preparation and application of dyestuffs is one of the oldest forms of human activities. Many garden flowers make beautiful dyes ranging from yellow to orange and brown. Several workers have extracted a number of dyes from a variety of local plants. According to Akpuaka (1998) and Osabohiem (2002), the local plants like canwood, redwood, henna, banana, annatto, rothmania, indigovine, kola turmeric, Rosette and ginger all contain different types of dyes which are used for various purposes.

The suitability of some of these dyes for dying purposes has been investigated on different types of fabric. Another plant that will make a beautiful dye is onions skin; onions skin will produce a beautiful orange color with alum and tartaric acid. Akpuaka (1993). An evaluation of other properties of a number of dyes including synthetic dyes has also been reported by a number of researchers. Obanda et al (1997) and Dambata et al (1997). Ekandern et al (1997); Eze et al, (2002); Yakasai et al, (2005); Izonfuo et al, (2000) and Sudarshan et al, (2011) have also reported their findings on the use of some natural dye extracts as indicators in acid-base titrimetry. Other than these few reported cases, very little attention has been paid to the use of local plant dye extracts as dyeing materials. Today synthetic dyes are the choice of many pharmaceutical, textiles, food industries for impacting colors on their products and for acid-base titrations in laboratories but due to environmental pollution, availability, ease of preparation and cost effectiveness, the search for natural compounds as dyes and dyeing materials started.

Thus the purpose of this study is to extract and investigate the dyeing properties of some local plant extracts that could be used as effectively as well as their workability as good dyeing stuffs. Natural dyes generally require a mordant, which are metallic salts of aluminum, iron, chromium, copper and others, for ensuring the reasonable fastness of the color to sunlight and washing. Natural dyes are also used to color food.

1.2 Brief History of Dyeing

The art of dyeing is as old as our civilization. Dyed textile remnants found during archaeological excavations at different places all over the world provide evidence to the practice of dyeing in ancient civilizations. Natural dyes were used only for coloring of textiles from ancient times till the nineteenth century. As the name suggests, natural dyes are derived from natural resources. Coloring materials obtained from natural resources of plant, animal, mineral, and microbial origins were used for coloration of various textile materials. Different regions of the world had their own natural dyeing traditions utilizing the natural resources available in that region. Use of natural dyes started to decline after the invention of synthetic dyes in the second half of the nineteenth century. Concerted research efforts in the field of synthetic dyes and rapid industrialization of textile production resulted in almost complete replacement of natural dyes by synthetic dyes on account of their easy availability in ready-to-apply form, simple application process, consistency of shades, and better fastness properties. The tradition of using natural dyes could survive only in certain isolated pockets. Recent environmental awareness has again revived interest in natural dyes mainly among environmentally conscious people. Natural dyes are considered eco-friendly as these are renewable and biodegradable; are skin friendly and may also provide health benefits to the wearer. Natural dyes can be used for dyeing almost all types of natural fibers. Recent research shows that they can also be used to dye some synthetic fibers. Apart from their application in textiles, natural dyes are also used in the coloration of food, medicines, handicraft items and toys, and in leather processing, and many of the dye-yielding plants are used as medicines in various traditional medicinal systems. There are several challenges and limitations associated with the use of natural dyes. The current dyestuff requirement from the industry is about 3 million tones. Considering this fact, the use of natural dyes in mainstream textile processing is a big challenge. As agricultural land is primarily required to feed an ever-increasing world population, support livestock and biodiversity should not be compromised for the extraction of dyes, sustainability of natural dyes is a major issue. Samantha (2011).

1.3 Statement of the Problem

Since time immemorial, the roots, seeds, leaves, bark and flowers of plants and also mineral matter have been used to dye textiles. Natural dyes or colorants are also used in the food manufacturing industry with the prime motive of making their products very attractive. Until the 1850s, the World Book Encyclopedia (2001) reports that all dyes were made from natural sources such as the roots, seeds, leaves, bark and flowers of plants and also mineral matter. Synthetic dyes came into existence during the late 1800s and 1900s, and were widely used owing to their property of better color fastness. The industry now uses a wide variety of these synthetic dyes. As a result, the natural dyes which are less harmful are no longer used while more chemical dyes are used. These toxic materials pollute the environment and create more hazards to life. The adaptation of synthetic dyes in Nigeria has drastically reduced interest in exploration of plant dyes from our environment. This is because, one can get the synthetic dyes which have better fastness property easily on the market instead of going through the long process of walking through the forest to collect the plants from which dyes are extracted. As though this was not enough, synthetic food colorants are being used to color food items like fried yam and turkey tail, beef, bread, pig feet and pastries which are sold in the market. Even though these synthetic dyes come in handy, they are expensive and may be environmentally unfriendly. Furthermore, educational institutions located in rural communities where commercial dyes are unavailable for lack of suppliers or inaccessible for lack of funds to purchase them, could use the resourcefulness of our natural environment; thus coming out with their own dyes from flora available in their localities Opoku-Asare (2004). This project is intended to serve as reference material for practical science works. Also, not paying attention to the extensive possibilities and creative capacity of the art practitioners to develop technical skills through the use of the material resources in the natural environment will jeopardize the classroom setting, which is expected to be a field with the right kind of artistic experiences needed to obtain the objective of self expression among students. It is therefore expedient in this regard that, research be carried out into basic ways of the extraction and application of dyes from local plants found in the environment as substitute for synthetic colorants used in the textile and food industry, which will not be harmful to the human system. In addition, this research can help to alleviate boredom and create versatility in the science setting by educating urban dwellers and students of chemistry on the processes involved in obtaining and producing natural dyes from the environment, including the forest reserves.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

1. To identify some plants from which dyes can be extracted.

2. To test the properties of the plant dyes.

3. To evaluate the application of theses plant dyes on different fabrics (cotton, polyester, nylon and silk).

1.5 Research Questions

1. What are some of the natural plants from which dyes can be extracted?

2. How can these extracted dyes be used to dye textiles?

3. To what extent can the forest reserves be explored to create wealth for the Nigerian textiles producers?

1.6 Delimitation

The study was limited to exploring the plants from which dyes can be extracted and used as colorants for selected textile fabrics. Although there are different dyes additives (Acids and Alkali) that are, used to enhance fabrics, the study was limited to coloring agents.

1.7 Limitations

The research was characterized by collecting and ascertaining data on the existence of some plants. However, resource and funding constraints was a major drawback in gathering several of the plants from which dye can be extracted from, since more solvent will be needed for the extraction.

1.8 Importance of the Study

The study seeks to explore and capture some plants from which dyes can be extracted and applied to textile fabrics. The study also plays a distinctive role in providing beneficial information to the textile industries, students and scholars. In addition, the study would create the awareness of unexplored plant dyes and finally serve as a reference material to other research works.

1.9 Definition of Terms

Adhere: The ability for a dye to stick firmly to a substrate.

Affinity for dye: The ability for a fiber or fabric to attract dye and exhaust it.

Bleed: To spread color from one area of a substrate to another area, bleeding may produce both color loss and staining.

Crack: To transfer color as a result of abrasion or rubbing.

Exhaustion: The amount of transfer of dye from the bath to the fiber, either by, adsorption or absorption.

Dye stuff: To change the color of something by using a special liquid. The substance has the ability to change the appearance of a substrate.

Dye liquor: This is a solution or liquid mixed with color to enable dyeing.

Fabric: This is formed by assembling yarns and or fibers into one cohesive Structure. The most common fabric structures are woven, knit, and non-woven. Fabric may be referred to as cloth, material, piece goods or goods.

Fade: A fabric is said to fade when it loses color or runs out during washing.

Fastness: The resistance of a material to change in color characteristics.

Fiber: These are fine hair-like substances. They may be natural or manufactured and are the smallest components of a textile product. Cotton is an example of a natural fiber while polyester on the other hand is a manufactured fiber.

Finish: This is any chemical or mechanical treatment or process that modifies the properties of textile products.

Frost: Loss of color resulting from localized abrasion.

Migrate: Shift color; this occurs when moisture lifts color and deposits it in another area. This is most seen in the underwear area.

Textiles It is a broad classification of materials that can be utilized in constructing fabrics, including textile fibers, and yarn. It is also used to designate the constructed fabric including woven, knitted, and non-woven structures as well as lace and crocheted goods. Yarn: Yarns are groupings of natural or manufactured fibers that are combined to form a continuous strand that can be used to produce fabric.

Monday, 27 March 2023

PRODUCTION OF FACE CLEANSING GEL USING TURMERIC, HONEY, GLYCERIN AND EUCALYPTUS OIL

PRODUCTION OF FACE CLEANSING GEL USING TURMERIC, HONEY, GLYCERIN AND EUCALYPTUS OIL

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

Medicinal plants have provided a reliable source for preparation of new drugs as well as combating diseases, from the dawn of civilization. The extensive survey of the literature revealed that turmeric, honey, glycerin and eucalyptus oil are highly regarded as a universal panacea in the herbal medicine with a wide spectrum of pharmacological activities. These plants and natural products are distributed throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world and are widely used for treatment of different ailment and beauty products such as face cleansing gels which is used for skin treatment (William, 2012).

The skin is the largest organ of the body, accounting for about 15% of total adult body weight. It performs many vital functions, including protection against external, physical, chemical and biological assailants, as well as prevention of excess water loss from the body and role in thermoregulation. The skin is continuous, with the mucous membranes lining the body’s surface. To keep skin healthy, clear, glossy, a balanced nutrition is required. Apart from the balanced nutrition, hormonal changes especially during puberty in both sexes cause many changes in the body. Among various changes, dryness, roughness and pimples are most common. The pathogenesis of this are bacterial over growth and inflammation. To overcome this problem the use herbal remedies such as face cleansing gels from natural products such as turmeric, honey, glycerin and eucalyptus oil is required (Sanju et al., 2017).

Herbal face cleansing gel alleviate age- related changes and neutralize environmental attack by removing skin cells on the surface and stimulating cell growth in the sub-epidermal layer. As grow older, rate of cell turnover slows down dramatically. Majorly dead cell found on facial skin surface hang around much longer, a fact that tends to emphasize those fine lines and can make complexion dull and lifeless. To remain healthy and of good appearance, the skin surface requires frequent cleansing to remove grin, sebus and other secretions, dead cells, crusts and applied make-ups. By removing these dead skin cells exfoliating skin- whether physically with scrub using herbal products containing vitamins, antioxidants, antiseptics and anti-aging properties which help to deep cleanse the skin and make it glow and attractive(Sanju et al., 2017).

1.1 Statement of the problem

Dirt found on the skin consists of sweat, sebum and its break down products, dead skin cells, residues of cosmetics and personal care products applied to the skin, dust, and other environmental impurities carried in the air(Sanju et al., 2017). Most of these compounds are not soluble in water, so washing the skin with simple water would not be sufficient to remove dirt.2. The general purpose for skin cleansing is to reduce these dirt using skin cleansing products which contain surfactants that are capable of emulsifying water-insoluble ingredients into micelles that can be easily washed away from the skin. Unfortunately, many skin cleansers do cause changes in the skin’s structure and barrier function, leading to irritation, dryness, redness, and itching; as cleansing products are primarily based on anionic surfactants, approaches have beendeveloped to decrease the tendency of these surfactants to damage skin proteins.

In order to maintain the skin barrier during cleansing, itis best to maintain the endogenous lipids and the native skinstructure. The addition of polymeric species that interactwith the surfactants to modern cleanser formulations createsless aggressive cleansers. Therefore this study helps to formulate face cleansing gel from turmeric, honey, glycerin and eucalyptus oil which has no side effect on the skin.

1.2 Justification of the Study

The use of synthetic beauty products with several side effects such as itching, offensive odour, irritation among others are common today, which have undermine the general purpose of cleansing agents thus giving rise to the need for a more body friendly products with no side effects. Therefore is study on the production of face cleansing gel using turmeric, honey, glycerin and eucalyptus oil is justifiable as this provides to solution to the problems created by using synthetic beauty products.

1.3 Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to produce face cleansing gel using turmeric, honey, glycerin and eucalyptus oil.

1.4 Objectives of the study

To determine the physical properties of the face cleansing gel such as colour, odour and consistency.
To determine the pH level of the face cleansing gel
To determine the spreadability and washability properties of the product.

Sunday, 27 November 2022

THE USE OF LOCAL PIGMENT AND EXTENDER FOR THE FORMULATION AND PRODUCTION OF EMULSION PAINTS

THE USE OF LOCAL PIGMENT AND EXTENDER FOR THE FORMULATION AND PRODUCTION OF EMULSION PAINTS

ABSTRACT

This study uses local pigment and extender for the formulation and production of emulsion paints. The emulsion paint was produced using water, hibiscus flower, hexane, yellow oxide (colour), Bermacol, Acrylate, Deformer, Gernapour, Texanol and ammonia. The study found that the specific graphic of the emulsion paint was found to be 25kg/m³, the density was 23g/ml while viscosity is at 100m²/s and the drying time of the formulated emulsion paint was found to be between 10 – 13 minutes outside and 10 – 20 minutes inside. the study shows that there was a good compatibility between the pigment and the binder during the paint formulation, which accounts for the deeper colour and good opacity for the emulsion paint formulated. The formulated emulsion was also found to have moderate viscosity which accounts for good flow properties. These results have revealed that the emulsion paints formulated could be used as both indoor and outdoor coatings.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Painting is a unique human activity that have helped the human race to contribute significantly in earning a better livelihood and building a better and more beautified world for ourselves (Akinterinwa, et al, 2018). Paints simply means organic coatings applied to surfaces with the sole aim of imparting both protective and aesthetic functions. Paints and other pigments come in a variety of gloss levels which corresponds to the level of a pigment dispersed in a substance usually called a vehicle or binder, usually polymeric in nature,which adheres to the substrate. The vehicle (i.e the binder) is one of the most important ingredients in paint formulation because it is a film-forming material or oil (Gopalan et al, 2020).

Paint is a fluid, or semi-fluid material which may be applied to surfaces in relatively thin layers, and which changes to a solid coating with time. The change to a solid material may or may not be reversible, and may occur by evaporation of solvent by chemical reaction, or by a combination of the two. Paints usually consist of vehicle or binder, a pigment which contributes obscurities colour, hardness and bulk to the film, and a solvent or thinner which controls the consistency. Paint is basically classified into two, which are gloss paint and emulsion paint (Osemeahon and Dimas, 2013).

Gloss paints (oil-based paints) are paints that may be classified according to whether the drying mechanism is predominantly solvent evaporation, oxidation or some chemical reaction. Gloss paints which dry essentially by solvent evaporation, rely on a fairly hard resin as the vehicle. Paints which dry by oxidation, the vehicle is usually an oil or an oil-based varnish, these usually contains driers to accelerate the drying of the oil. Paint based essentially on oil with suitable pigment such as titanium dioxide, extenders, and usually zinc-oxide and white lead, are conventional outside house paints because these materials give the combination of properties which meet this requirement (Osemeahon and Dimas, 2013).

On the other hand, Emulsion paint is commonly water-based, with acrylic or vinyl added to make it more durable and easier to apply to walls and ceilings. These are paints with water-soluble vehicle and they include, calcimines, in which the vehicle is glue and case-in paints. Emulsions are useful because they allow ways to deliver active materials in water which is inexpensive and innocuous. A related advantage of emulsions is they allow dilution of these active ingredients to an optimal concentration (Osemeahon and Dimas, 2013). Emulsions are commonly used in many major chemical industries. After an emulsion paint is applied, the water evaporates and the polymer particles pack closely and fuse together to form a continuous film. The use of water rather than an organic liquid means that emulsion paints produce fewer VOC (volatile organic compounds) when they are used.

Emulsion is the most popular paint for walls and a ceiling due to the fact that it is water based and has less smell, dries comparatively quickly and is easy to apply. This fact has necessitated the need to search for an appropriated paint binder which can challenge the good properties of oil paint on one hand and use water as a solvent on the other hand poly (vinyl acetate) (PVA), is one of such binders commonly used for emulsion paint formulation. On the contrary, paints derived from PVA are characterized by poor water, chemical and water resistances, flexibility, gloss and durability etc.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

In recent decades, conventional paints are more and more replaced by environmentally friendly formulas (Traumann et al., 2014)whose use is recommended due to ecological considerations, specifically the reduction of volatile organic compounds emissions (Tucaliuc, 2014) and economic aspectslow volumes of organic solvents which tend to have a limited availability and are expensive. Conventional paints (Oil-based paint) is superior to emulsion paint in many respects such as water resistant, flexibility, gloss and durability. However, despite the superiority of oil paint over emulsion paint many countries are now threatening to band it usage through appropriate legislation due to it negative effect to the environment (Habibu, 2011). Many functional chemical ingredients in paints are not water soluble and require alcohol or other organic solvents to form solutions. These solvents may be costly, hazardous to handle, or toxic. Due to these problems, it has becomes necessary to produce paint from local and synthesized materials. This give rise to the need to carryout this study on the use of local pigment and extender for the formulation and production of emulsion paints.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

Aim

The aim of this study is to use local pigment and extender for the formulation and production of emulsion paints.

Objectives

To identify the local pigment and extender that will be used for the production of emulsion paints
To determine thespecific gravity of emulsion paint
To determinetheresistance of the emulsion paints to wet abrasion paint
To determine the kinematic viscosity of the paint
To determinethe temperature stability of the paint
To determine the drying time of the paint produced

1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

The justification of this work is that

high quality local pigment and extenders are abundant in Nigeria and if properly sourced and processed by paint industries it will help in increasing the quantity of local paint, hence reducing the cost of paint production and conserve foreign exchange (forex) and
It will provide job opportunities and reduce unemployment in the country.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of this study includes the formulation and production of emulsion paint using locally available pigment and extender as a binder. Effects of some physical properties such as drying time, viscosity, elongational break, density, melting point, moisture uptake, refractive index was determined.

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

On considering the high cost of imported raw materials for the production of emulsion paint in the paint industry, which at the end of the production affect the market price, likewise causing economy constrain, there is need to lookout for those locally available raw materials such as pigments and extenders (e.g calcium carbonate) which will give such desirable qualities and properties as those of imported raw materials (e.g Titanium Dioxide).

It will be interesting to note that science and engineering have some of possible solutions towards reduction of high cost of emulsion paint production and also this research work is directed towards the vital needs for the use of local pigments and extenders as raw materials for the production of emulsion paint of high quality and standards which will stand the test of time and also compete with those emulsion paints produced with imported raw materials.

Finally, this research work will be of more importance to the paint manufacturers in the country, who spend lots of money for importations of raw materials, while they are bless with much raw materials as pigments and extenders for emulsion paint production in the country.

PHYTOCHEMICAL MINERAL ANALYSIS OF PAWPAW LEAF

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Natural fruits with high dietary value play a significant role to the and urban communities in the form of food and nutrient enhancement. Plants are important in our everyday existence. They provide our foods, produce the oxygen we breathe, and serve as raw materials for many industrial products such as clothes, foot wears and so many others. Plants also provide raw materials for our buildings and in the manufacture of biofuels, dyes, perfumes, pesticides, adsorbents and drugs. The plant kingdom has proven to be the most useful in the treatment of diseases and they provide an important source of all the world’s pharmaceuticals. The most important of these bioactive constituents of plants are steroids, terpenoids, carotenoids, flavanoids, alkaloids, tannins and glycosides. Plants in all facet of life have served a valuable starting material for drug development (Ajibesin, 2011).

In modern existence, the function and advantageous effects of numerous phytonutrients from plant origins such as fruits and vegetables had drawn the much-needed attention from both the scientists as well as the general public. These phytochemicals are non- synthetic antioxidant which are often promoted owing to the concerns as regards toxicity of the synthetic ones. Asides from scavenging activity of free radicals, antioxidants identified from most of the plants possess health beneficial effects such as antibacterial, antiviral etc (Akah, Enwerem and Gamaniel, 2007)

Carica Papaya is a brief, evergreen plant that grows up to 25 feet tall. Its hollow trunk is noticeable with leaf scars. The leaves grow in a spiraled huddle straight from the upper part of the stem on parallel petioles (leaf stalks) 1 to 31/2 feet long. The leaves are intensely divided and with an array in width from 1 to 2 feet. Naturally, the male and female flowers are produced on separate plants; however, there are hermaphrodite forms in cultivation which bear both male and female flowers on the same plant. The flowers are fleshy and waxy and have a light scent. The fruit has a taste of a combination of melons and peaches. Although, these trees are grown primarily for their fruit, however the tree contains latex from which papain, a digestive enzyme is extracted. Papain breaks down protein in meat to make it tender therefore Papaya can be used as a meat tenderizer (Baur, Sourer and Weiss, 2008)

It has several uses in this Modern-day including Immuno-modulatory , Fiber of c. papaya is able to bind cancer-causing toxins in the colon and keep them away from the healthy colon cells, protein enzymes including papain, chymopapain and antioxidant nutrients in papaya including vitamin C, vitamins E, and beta-carotene, reduce the severity of asthma, osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. It provides the human with protection against inflammatory polyarthritis a form of rheumatoid arthritis involving two or more joints. It helps the lung to be healthy and save life, rubbing the white pulp of raw c. papaya expels pimples as well as wrinkles. Papaya works as a good bleaching agent (Everette, 2013).

The ripe papaya fruit contains significant amounts of macro and micro minerals which are Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn. Ripe papaya is most commonly consumed as fresh fruit whereas green papaya as vegetable usually after cooking or boiling (Everette, 2013). Some of its allergies are link to a latex fluid when it is not ripe, which can cause irritation and provoke allergic reaction in some people, excessive consumption of papaya can cause carotenemia, the yellowing of soles and palms, which is otherwise harmless. However, a very large dose would need to be consumed. Papaya contains about 6% of the level of beta carotene in carrots (the most common cause of carotenemia) (Everette, 2013).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Antibiotics or antimicrobial substances like flavonoids and Tannins etc are found to be distributed in plants, yet these compounds were not well established due to the lack of knowledge and techniques. The phyto-constituents which are phenols, anthraquinones, alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids and saponins are antibiotic principles of plants. Plants are now occupying important position in allopathic medicine, herbal medicine, homoeopathy and aromatherapy. Medicinal plants are the sources of many important drugs of the modern world. Many of these indigenous medicinal plants are used as spices and food plants; they are also sometimes added to foods meant for pregnant mothers for medicinal purposes (Akinpela and Onakoya, 2006). Many plants are cheaper and more accessible to most people especially in the developing countries than orthodox medicine, and there is lower incidence of adverse effects after use. These reasons might account for their worldwide attention and use. The medicinal properties of some plants have been documented by some researchers ( Akinpelu and Onukoya, 2006).

Medicinal plants are of great importance to the health of individuals and communities. It was the advent of antibiotics in the 1950s that led to the decline of the use of plant derivatives as antimicrobials (Marjorie, 1999). Medicinal plants contain physiologically active components which over the years have been exploited in the traditional medical practices for the treatment of various ailments (Ajibesin, 2011). A relatively small percentage of less than 10% of all the plants on earth is believed to serve as sources of medicine (Marjorie, 1999).

1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study

Aim

The general aim of this study is to carry out a phytochemical mineral analysis of pawpaw leaf.

Objectives

The specific objective of this study include:

To carry out a proximate constituents analysis of pawpaw leaf
To determine the qualitative and quantitative contents of mineral contents in pawpaw leaf

Tuesday, 1 February 2022

CHARACTERIZATION AND UTILIZATION OF ACTIVATED TAMARIND KERNEL

ABSTRACT

Activated tamarind kernel powder was prepared from tamarind seed(Tamarindus indica);and utilized for the removal of Acid Red 1, Reactive Orange 20 and Reactive blue 29 dyes from their aqueous solutions. The powder was activated using 4M nitric acid (HNO₃). The effect of various parameters which include; pH, adsorbent dosage, ion concentration, and contact time were studied to identify the adsorption capacity of the activated tamarind kernel powder under the above conditions. The percentage of dye adsorbed is seen to be dependent on these factors. The result obtained indicated that the adsorption of Acid Red 1 (AR1), Reactive Orange 20 (RO20) and Reactive Blue 29 (RB29) decreased with increase in initial concentration but increased with increase in temperature. At equilibrium, all three dyes showed highest dye uptake at initial dye concentration of 20 mg/l, pH 2, adsorbent dose of 1.0 g, and at a contact time range of 80-100 min. The Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin and Dubinin Radushkevichisotherm models measured at a temperature range of 298-328K are fitted into the graphs. The Temkin isotherm model is best-fitted into the experimental data with R² values ranging between 0.913-0.987 for Acid Red 1, 0.865-0.969 for Reactive Orange 20 and 0.942-0.992 for Reactive Blue 29. The next in line for best fitting is the Langmuir isotherm with R² values ranging between 0.859-0.995 for Acid Red 1 dye, 0.825-0.974 for Reactive Orange 20 and 0.971-0.989 for Reactive Blue 29. This is followed by Dubinin Radushkevich isotherm with R² values ranging between 0.931-0.974 for Acid Red 1, 0.923-0.989 for Reactive Orange 20 and 0.789-0.923 for Reactive Blue 29. Lastly is the Freundlich isotherm with R² values ranging between 0.803-0.931 for Acid Red 1, 0.856-0.964 for Reactive Orange 20 and 0.982-0.995 for Reactive Blue 29. The pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order kinetic models were also fitted into the graphs, but pseudo-second order was best fitted into the experimental data. The thermodynamic parameters such as enthalpy, entropy,andfreeenergywhichweredeterminedusingtheVan‘tHoffequationswerefoundto

provide the clues necessary to predict the nature of the adsorption process. The values of the activation energy (E_A) obtained indicated that the adsorption of AR1, RO20 and RB29 on activated tamarind kernel powder (ATKP) is a physical process.The negative free energy (ΔG) indicatedthat the adsorption process is feasible and spontaneous, the negative enthalpy (ΔH) indicatedthat the reaction is exothermic in nature and the negative entropy (ΔS) indicated that there is decreased randomness at the solid/solution interphase during the adsorption process. The chemical functional groups of the ATKP adsorbent were studied by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy which helped in the identification of possible adsorption sites on the adsorbent surface. Characterization of the activated tamarind kernel powder which was carried out using standard methods, showed that the values of the parameters of interest such as moisture and dry matter content, ash content, pH and bulk density; fall within acceptable range. Therefore, activated tamarind kernel powder has proven to be a very good adsorbent for the removal of acid dyes and reactive dyes.

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Environmental pollution control is said to be a matter of utmost concern in many countries. However, air and water pollution constitute the major environmental pollution in several countries. Consequently, open burning leads to air pollution, while industrial effluent and domestic sewage leads to water pollution. Water pollution results to bad effects on public water supplies which can cause health problem, while air pollution can cause lung diseases, burning eyes, cough, and chest tightness. The environmental issues surrounding the presence of colour in effluent is a continuous problem for dye stuff manufacturers, dyers, finishers, and water companies (Kesari etal., 2011).

The contaminants such as dyes, heavy metal, cyanide, toxic organics, nitrogen, phosphorus, phenols, suspended solids, colour, and turbidity from industries and untreated sewage sludge from domestics, are becoming of great concern to the environmental and public health. Therefore, the treatment of these pollutants is very important (Cheremisinoff, 1993).

Residual dyes from different sources (e.g., textile industries, paper and pulp industries, dye and dye intermediates industries, pharmaceutical industries, tannery, and Kraft bleaching industries and others) are considered a wide variety of organic pollutants introduced into the natural water resources or wastewater treatment systems. One of the main sources with severe pollution problems worldwide is the textile industry and its dye-containing wastewaters (i.e. 10,000 different textile dyes with an estimated annual production of 7.105 metric tonnes are commercially available worldwide; 30% of these dyes are used in excess of 1,000 tonnes per annum, and 90% of the textile products are used at the level of 100 tonnes per annum or less) (Baban et al., 2010; Robinson et al., 2001; Soloman et al., 2009). About 10-25% of textile dyes are lost during the dyeing process, and 2-20% is directly discharged as aqueous effluents

in different environmental components. In particular, the discharge of dye-containing effluents into the water environment is undesirable, not only because of their colour, but also because many of the dyes released and their breakdown products are toxic, carcinogenic or mutagenic to life forms mainly because of carcinogens, such as benzidine, naphthalene and other aromatic compounds (Suteu et al., 2009; Zaharia et al., 2009). Without adequate treatment these dyes can remain in the environment for a long period of time. For instance, the half-life of hydrolysed Reactive Blue 19 is about 46 years at pH 7 and 298 K (Haoet al., 2000).

In addition to the aforementioned problems, the textile industry consumes large amounts of potable and industrial water as processing water (90-94%) and a relatively low percentage as cooling water (6-10%) in comparison with the chemical industry where only 20% is used as process water and the rest for cooling. The recycling of treated wastewater has been recommended due to the high levels of contamination in dyeing and finishing processes (i.e. dyes and their breakdown products, pigments, dyeintermediates, auxiliary chemicals and heavy metals, and others(Bertea and Bertea, 2008; Bisschops and Spanjers, 2003; Correia et al., 1994; Orhon et al., 2001).

Synthetic dyes have been increasing in textile industries for dyeing natural and synthetic fibres. Discharge of dye- bearing waste-water makes an adverse effect on aquatic environment because the dyes give water undesirable colour (Ibrahim et al., 2010) and reduce light penetration and photosynthesis (Al-Degs et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2005; Oei et al., 2009). Conventional methods used to treat coloured effluents are oxidation, coagulation and flocculation, biological treatment, membrane filtration. However, the single conventional treatment is unable to remove certain forms of colour, particularly those arising from reactive dyes as a result of their high solubility and low biodegradability (Vijayaraghavan et al., 2009).

1.2 Statement of Research Problem

One of the major problems concerning textile and leather wastewaters is coloured effluent (Ramakrishna, et al; 1997). This wastewater contains a variety of organic compounds and toxic substances, which are harmful to fish and other aquatic organisms. Dyes even in low concentrations affect the aquatic life and food web. Since many organic dyes are harmful to human beings, the removal of colour from process or waste effluents becomes environmentally important. Due to the large degree of organics present in these molecules and the stability of modern dyes, conventional physicochemical and biological treatment methods are ineffective for their removal (Mckay,1995).

1.3 Justification for the Research

Activated carbon is a widely used adsorbent due to its high adsorption capacity, high surface area, microporous structure, and high degree of surface reactivity, but there are some problems associated with its use,it is expensive and regeneration results in a 10–15% loss of adsorbent and its uptake capacity and therefore this adds to the operational costs. This led to a search for cheaper, easily obtainable materials for the adsorption of dye from industrial effluent (Waranusantigulet al., 2003). As a result, the use of natural waste products and plants has increased considerably during the past years for pollution control applications (Kumar et al., 2009).

Tamarind Kernel is a biological waste material which is readily available and relatively cheap. It can be collected and powdered. (Shanthi and Mahalakshmi,2012).It has excellent potential for the removal of dye from coloured effluent (Patel and Vashi, 2010).TKP has been used to remove dyes from the binary mixture of their aqueous solution (Shanthi and Mahalakshmi,2012).It has also found excellent application in the reduction of Chemical oxygen demand (COD), Total dissolved solids; Sulphates and Turbidity from diary waste water (Shobaet al.,2015).

1.4 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this research is to characterize and utilize Activated Tamarind Kernel Powder (ATKP) in the treatment of Industrial wastewater.

This aim will be achieved by the following objectives:

To isolate, carbonize and activate the tamarind kernelpowder

To determine some physicochemical parameters which include pH, contact time, adsorbent dose and initial concentration of the ATKP adsorbent
To run the FTIR Spectra of the activated ATKP adsorbent before and after treatment with Acid Red 1, Reactive Orange 20 and Reactive Blue 29 (AR1, RO20 and RB29) in order to identify the functional groups responsible for the adsorption of each dye molecule unto the ATKP surface
To analyse the effect of Initial concentration, Initial pH, Contact time, Adsorbent dose and operating Temperature in order to determine the optimum conditions for maximum adsorption of the dyes (AR1, RO20 and RB29) from their aqueous solutions
To examine the adsorption efficiency of ATKP for AR1, RO20 and RB29 by analysing the adsorption isotherms (Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin and Dubinin- Radushkevich)
To examine the rate of adsorption by studying the adsorption Kinetics (Lagagren Pseudo-First order and Pseudo-Secondorder)
To examine the spontaneity of adsorption of AR1, RO20 and RB29 on ATKP through the determination of the thermodynamics parameters (Standard Gibbs free energy, Activation Energy, Enthalpy andEntropy)

THE ANALYTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF COPPER SCHIFF BASE COMPLEXES

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Meaning of Schiff Base

Schiff bases are condensation products of primary amines and carbonyl compounds, such as aldehyde or ketone. Schiff base was discovered by a German chemist Hugo Schiff in 1864. Schiff bases are considered as one of the most popular families of organic compounds which are used as synthetic intermediates as well as quite helpful in the establishment of coordination chemistry (Gemi, 2004).

Schiff bases are considsed as a very important class of organic compounds, having wide applications in many biological aspects, proteins, visual pigments, enzymic aldolization and delarboxylation reactions. More over some Schiff bases and their metal complexes exhibits antibiotic, antiviral and antitumor agents. They are used as catelysts in polymer and dye industries, beside some uses as antifertility and enzymatic agents. An interesting application of Schiff base is their use as an effective corrosion inhibitor, which is based on their ability to spontaneously form a monolarger on the surface to be protected, Schiff bases are also

R1 called imines, and they contain carbon nitrogen R double bond ( C=N-R) (Ozaslen et al, 2011). Due to the physico chemical properties of Schiff bases, they have played a very important role as chelating ligands for transition metal and for the development of coordination chemistry. Since they have flexible nature and easily proton donating property, the study of Schiff bases and their complexes with transition metals, lathanides and radioactive metals has flourished since few decides. Schiff base ligand shows a number of sites for binding that lead to higher coordination polyhedral and cause greater kinetor and thermodynamic stability (A Shral et al, 2001).

1.2 Meaning of Copper Schiff Base Complex

Schiff bases are varstatile Ligants and when they undergo coordinate covalent bonding with a transition metal such as copper a copper –Schiff base complexes are formed.

The Schiff bases has ability to donate core pair of electron to the central metal which is copper, in other to form a complex or coordination compound. Some of the Schiff base has the ability to donate pairs of electron to the copper hence they are called tridentate ligand, those that can donate four pairs of electron are called tetradentate ligand and vice versa. Copper Schiff bases have wide applications in food industry, dye industry, analytical chemistry, catelysis, agrochemical, fungicidal, anti-inflammable activity, anti radical activity and biological activities (Barboin, 2006).

Schiff base complexes are considered to be among the most important sterer chemical models in main group and transition metal coordination chemistry due to their preparative accessibility and structural variety. Copper (11) Complexes shows distorted octahedral and tetrahedral symmetries due to d9 configuration. The distortion is usually seen as axil elongation consistent with the liability and geometric flexibility of the complex (Gemi, 2004).

Therefore typical copper (II) complexes have square planer or square pyramidal geometries with weakly associated ligand in the axial position, but some copper (II) complexes possess regional bipyramidal geometry. The fundamental role of copper and the recognition of its complexes as important bioactivities compounds in vitro and in vivo aroused an ever-increasing interest in these agents as potential drugs for therapeutic intervention in various diseases (Jesmi and Ali, 2010).

A considerable number of Schiff bases copper complexes have potential biological interest, being used as more or less successful models of biological compounds. Not only they have played a seminal role in the development of modern coordination chemistry, but also they can be found at key points in the development of inorganic biochemistry, Catalysis and optical materials (Kumer et al, 2009).

1.3 Uses of Schiff Bases and their Metal Complexes

The Schiff base ligands and their metal complexes have special importance in the field of coordination chemistry. A survey of the literature shows that, in recent times, increasing number of studies has been devoted to the synthesis and structural studies. However, the utility aspects of the Schiff bases and their metal complexes have received their share of attention with an all round progress in the field of coordination chemistry. The importance of Schiff bases and their metal complexes with transition metals have been well emphasized by several researchers.

1.4 Analytical Applications

The Schiff bases have remarkable property of forming complexes and serve as excellent chelating ligands. Due to their ligational property they have been extensively used as analytical reagents. Schiff bases formed from salicylaldehyde are used in gravimetric analysis and spectrophotometric determination. For example, the Schiff bases derived from ethylenediamine forms an insoluble complex with Ni (II), which has been used for its gravimetric determination. Also, the same reagent has been used recently for the spectrophotometric determination of Ni (II) at trace level.

Biological Importance

The active functional group of Schiff bases is azomethine (-HC=N-) and its importance has been studied in bio-chemistry. Its biological importance has been studied in the fields of fungicides and insecticides21. Also, the intermediate of the azomethine group shows biological importance in large number of enzymatic reactions. These compounds exhibit many physiological activities. They are found to be useful as plant growth regulants and as an anti-coagulating materials.

1.5 Objective of the Study

The main objective of this study is to analyse Schiff base and its complexes have a variety of application including biological, chemical and analytical. Earlier work has shown that some drugs showed increase activity when administrated as metal chalets rather than as organic compounds.

1.6 Materials and Methodology

Chemicals used for this work like substituted hydroxyl benzaldehyde , hydrazine hydrate, diethyl malonate , metal salts , Ethanol, chloroform, methanol, distilled water, Acetone cobalt standard, Nickel standard etc were of analytical grade.

1.7 Apparatus and Instruments

The apparatus used in this project are melting point apparatus, condenser, heating mantle, round bottom flask, rotary evaporator, beakers, measuring cylinder, ice bath, desiccators, suction pump, funnel, filter paper, stirrer etc.

Thursday, 6 January 2022

DETERMINATION OF GLUCOSURIA AND PROTEINURIA AMONG ADULT FROM THE AGE 30 TO 70 ATTENDING GENERAL HOSPITAL NASARAWA

ABSTRACT

Glucosuria, is the present of glucose in the urine and proteinuria is also the present of protein in the urine. Glucosuria and proteinuria are major causes of illness and death especially among adult between the age of 30 – 70 years. It is estimated that more than one million adult living in Africa especially in remote areas with poor access to health services die annually from direct and indirect effects of glucosuria and proteinuria. The first freshly voided early morning urine is collected in a chemically clean and dry container. Combi 9 and Glucometer detection method were used to examine the present of glucosuria and proteinuria. The glucosuria and proteinuria was found among 30 – 70 years old. 48 people were positive in the age of (51-70) and 15 people were negative in the age of (30-50). There is need for adult to know their glucosuria and proteinuria status, in other to prevent the occurrence of these long time deadly disease.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Glucosuria, glucose in the urine, results from the glomerular filtration of more glucose than the renal tubule can absorb. It occurs in all normal individuals in amounts up to 25 mg/dl (Khitan & Glassock, 2019). Abnormally increased glucosuria (more than 25mg/dl in random fresh urine (4), results from either an elevated plasma glucose, an impaired renal glucose absorptive capacity, or both (Khitan & Glassock, 2019). Proteinuria is a condition characterized by the presence of greater than normal amounts of protein in the urine. It is usually associated with some kind of disease or abnormality but may occasionally be seen in healthy individuals. Plasma, the liquid portion of blood, contains many different proteins. One of the many functions of the kidneys is to conserve plasma protein so that it is not eliminated along with waste products.

Glucosuria and proteinuria is a common symptom of both type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes and kidney disease. Diabetes mellitus also known simply as diabetes is a group of metabolic disorder of carbohydrate metabolism in which glucose is underutilized producing hyperglycemia over a long period (Rose & Rannke, 2009). It is characterized by high blood glucose either because the body does not produce enough insulin or because cells do not respond to the insulin that is produced (DeFronzo et al, 2013). Some causes of diabetes mellitus includes; Insufficient insulin production and utilization, Fibrocystic disease of the pancreas, Destruction of pancreatic islets of langerhans figure 1, Infant with low birth weight has a high potential of developing type 2 diabetes later in life (Joslin Diabetes Center, 2015), age older than 45 years, obesity weight greater than 120% of desirable body weight (true for 90% of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus), history of impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) or impaired fasting glucose level (IFG), hypertension, blood pressure greater than 140/90mm/Hg or hyperlipidemia (high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol less than 35mg/L or triglyceride level greater than 250mg/L, history of gestational diabetes or delivering a baby with body weight more than 5kg (American Diabetes Association, 2014).

Untreated, diabetes which is as a result of glucosuria and proteinuria can cause many complications. Acute complications include diabetic ketoacidosis and nonketotic hyperosmolar coma (Ripsin, Kang and Urban, 2009). Serious long-term complications include heart disease, stroke, kidney failure, foot ulcers and damage to the eyes (Ripsin, Kang and Urban, 2009). The classic symptoms of untreated diabetes are weight loss, polyuria (frequent urination), polydipsia (increased thirst), and polyphagia (increased hunger) which are known to show rapidly in a type1while developing much more slowly and even subtly or absent in type 2 diabetes. Several other signs and symptoms can mark the onset of diabetes, although they are not specific to the disease.

Since glucosuria and proteinuria are often found only on routine examination of the urine, the importance of this research work become very obvious. Thus it becomes very important to carryout this study to determine the cases of glucosuria and proteinuria among adult from the age of 30 to 70 attending general hospital Nasarawa.

Statement of the problem

Glucosuria and proteinuria which is a sign of diabetes has become the major cause of sickness and death in many industrialized countries. More than 85% of patients with diabetes have non-insulin-dependent diabetes; 50% of these patients are still undiagnosed.1,2 Patients with NIDDM may remain asymptomatic for 9 to 12 years before such conditions as retinopathy, microalbuminuria or proteinuria, neuropathy, and probable cardiovascular disease develop insidiously to cause irreversible or permanent damage (Chuo, Matern, Mansfield and Chen, 2012). Early determination of glucosiria and proteinuria is therefore important for patients with possible symptoms for diabetes. Results from clinical trials and epidemiologic studies show that screening for diabetes mellitus using urinary reagent strips has been effective in detecting glucosuria (glucose in the urine). Patients with diabetes mellitus must maintain tight glycemic control to prevent or reduce the risk of long-term complications. In the past decade, studies of the correlation between the presence of glucosuria and proteinuria determined by urinary reagent strips and diabetes mellitus was rare. The purpose of this prospective study is therefore to determine glucosuria and proteinuria cases among adult attending General Hospital Nasarawa.

Objective of the study

The general objective of this study is to determine glucosuria and proteinuria among adult from the age of 30 to 70 years attending general hospital Nasarawa.

The specific objectives include:

The explore the concept of glucosuria and proteinuria
To detect the presence of glucose in the urine of the study population.
To detect the presence of glucosuria and proteinuria among the adults attending general hospital Nasarawa
To assess the prevalence of diabetes associated glucosuria and proteinuria among the population

Scope of the study

The scope of this study is limited to the determination of glucosuria and proteinuria among adults attending general hospital Nasarawa, the scope of the study is limited to adult between the age bracket of 30 to 70 years attending general hospital Nasarawa.

Significance of the study

Diabetes is a growing problem in the developing countries including Nigeria. Most cases of diabetes in Nigeria remain undiagnosed because many of the symptoms seem so harmless and most people especially in the rural areas are still ignorant of the disease. Early detection of diabetes mellitus and its treatment can decrease the chances of developing the complications.

The findings of this study on the determination of glucosuria and proteinuria among adult from age 30 to 70 years will be very significant to the general populace as it will enlighten them on the need to go for medical checkup and early diagnosis of diabetes. The findings of the study will also be of great significant to government ages in the health sectors to make policies that will be geared towards reducing the occurrence and management of diabetes and related diseases. Finally the study will contribute to the wealth of knowledge as it will serve as references for researchers who are interested in carrying further studies on the subject matter.

Definition of terms

Glucosuria: Glucosuria is defined as the presence of glucose in the urine, results from the glomerular filtration of more glucose than the renal tubule can absorb

Proteinuria: Proteinuria is defined as the presence of abnormal quantities of protein in the urine, which may indicate damage to the kidneys.

Adult: An adult is a mature, fully developed person. An adult has reached the age when they are legally responsible for their actions. Becoming a father signified that he was now an adult.

Diabetes: Diabetes is a chronic, metabolic disease characterized by elevated levels of blood glucose (or blood sugar), which leads over time to serious damage to the heart, blood vessels, eyes, kidneys, and nerves.

Diagnosis: Diagnosis is the process of determining which disease or condition explains a person’s symptoms and signs. It is most often referred to as diagnosis with the medical context being implicit.

Sunday, 2 January 2022

COMPARATIVE PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING OF Gongronema latifolium (UTAZI LEAVE) AND Moringa oleifera (HORSERADISH).

**COMPARATIVE PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING OF Gongronema latifolium (UTAZI LEAVE) AND Moringa oleifera (HORSERADISH).**

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

1.1 Phytochemicals

Plants are powerful biochemical and have components of phytomedicine since times immemorial. Man is able to obtain from them a wondrous assortment of industrial chemicals. Plant based natural constituent can be derived from any part of the plant like bark, leaves, flower, root, seeds e.t.c. (Gordon and David, 2001). Any part of the plant may contain active components. The beneficial medicinal effects of plant material typically result from the combination of secondary products present in the plant. The medicinal action of plants are unique to particular plant species. The systematic screening of plant species with the purpose of discovering new bioactive compounds is a routine activity in many laboratory in particular, the search for component with antimicrobial activity has gained increasing importance in recent times, due to growing worldwide concern about the alarming increase in the rate of infection by anti-biotic resistant microorganism (Davies, 1994). Hence, there is a constant need for new and effective chemotherapeutic agents. Many plant species have been utilized as traditional medicine but it is necessary to establish the scientific basis for the therapeutic action of traditional plant medicine as these may serve as the source for the development of more effective drugs. Scientific analysis of plant component follows a logical pathway. Plant are collected either randomly or by following lead supplied by local healers in geographical area when the plant are found. (Vileges, et al., 1994).

In recognition of this fact, the World Health Organization (WHO) has been attempting to incorporate traditional medicine officially into the health care systems of developing nations. In 1998, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the World Wild Fund (WWF), together with WHO brought health professionals and leading conservationist together in Thailand to produce a set of guidelines for countries wishing to make the best use of their medicinal herbs/ plants and to conserve them for the future. They stressed the vital importance of these plants in primary health care and the great potential of the plant kingdom to provide new drugs (Silva, 1998). Several countries already boast their systems in which traditional plant-based medicine is officially accepted. However, it is apparent that, there exists a significant difference in the way in which western scientists view an illness and its cure, and the way it is perceived else where. It is often at a loss to explain how plants are used directly, especially in a traditional manner which sometimes involves rituals and supernatural intervention (Busia, 2005). In essence, all plants are by nature living chemical factories, and it is the complex substances that they produce that we have mostly used to help keep us healthy. Apart from the medicinal properties of these plants, some serve as a good source of food and shelter for man. And thus, the ability of plants to be converted to orthodox medicine used to relieve pain and effect cure is often seen in some parts of the plants. These parts are the stem barks, root barks, fruits, seeds, leaves and root. (Leckridge, 2004). The medicinal value of drugs is due to the presence of certain substances such as alkaloid, saponin etc. these are known as active principles. They are commonly found or more concentrated in the storage organs of plant such as roots, bark, leaves and seeds.

Gongronema latifolium: This class of medicinal plants is beneficial in preventing and treating certain diseases and ailments that are detrimental to human health. The leaves, which can be chewed, infused or used for cooking, are mainly used in the Western part of Africa for nutritional and medicinal reason. Utazi has a characteristic sharp, bitter and slightly sweet taste, especially when eaten fresh. It contains essential oils, glycoside, alkaloids, saponins and tannin, various minerals, vitamins and some essential amino acids. The leaves have very high nutritional value and contain nutrients like potassium, calcium, sodium, proteins, copper, manganese, and fibre.

Moringa oleifera: This is a highly valued plant, distributed in many countries of the tropics and subtropics. It has an impressive range of medicinal uses with high nutrition value. Different parts of this plant contain a profile of important minerals, and is a good source of protein, vitamin, B carotene, amino acids, and various phenolics. In addition to its compelling water purifying powers and high nutritional value, Moringa oleifera is very important for its medicinal value. Various part of this plant such as the leaves, roots, seed, bark, fruit, flowers and immature pods acts as cardiac and circulatory stimulants, possess antitumor, antipyretic, antiepileptic, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, antispasmodic, diuretic, antihypertensive, cholesterol lowering, antioxidant, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, antibacterial and antifungal activities.

Background of the Study

One of the increasing differences between citizens of developed nations and the developing ones is clearly expressed in the quality of life that is led by them. In Nigeria and Africa at large, the average life expectancy is less than 55 years (WHO, 2014). In contrary to this figure, the average of those in developed nations was put at 71 years (WHO, 2013). This stunning difference calls for concern and essentially erodes the need to embark on policy backed scientific investigation into palpable reasons for this phenomenon. Emerging facts show that primary to quality of life when drive they determines the life expectancy index among other variables in the quality of health nutrition of a people and closely knitted to this are the availability and access to medicine and health practitioners. However, the problem of wide spread poverty which translates into inability to afford both good food nutrition and medical care is a challenge and factor that, in most cases, constrains most of the local people to rely heavily on locally available foods and plants herbs for treatment of diseases when the occasion arises. Having considered the above, it is important to state that government and stakeholders are beginning to lay emphasis on the need to co-opt ethno medicine into mainstream practice as a way of augmenting shortfalls in its obligations in providing healthcare to local populace. The Federal College of Alternative Medicine (FEDCAM) is one of the few examples that readily comes to mind. Thus, on this basis, there is an increased and continuous research on various plant types both by health nutritionist and pharmacologist with the aim of identifying valuable nutritive and medicinal plants for health needs and challenges. The conscious effort to investigate the chemical compositions of the sample leafy vegetable in this more is influenced by the sustained use of the vegetable over the ages either as simple food or herbal medicine. Thus, testing the leafy vegetable to ascertain the presence and amount of phytochemicals compositions alongside proximate and antinutrient is to enable a statement of affirmation or otherwise of the M. oleifera and G.latifolium, as a plant of high value in the health needs of the populace and should therefore, be given proper publicity to encourage increased domestic cultivation and consumption of the vegetable.

It is against the backdrops of the foregoing that the efforts at research on the leaves are embarked upon to validate, refute or add to existing body of findings on the sample leaf of fact found during this work. While attention will be given to testing, screening to detect and determine through quantitative analysis of test results. It is hoped that emerging facts will be of immense help to anticipated end users.

Phytochemicals

Phytochemicals are a large group of plant derived compounds hypothesized to be responsible for much of the disease protection conferred from diets high in fruits, vegetables, beans, cereals, and plant based beverages such as tea and wine. Phytochemicals can be broken into the following groups, Flavonoids, Phenols, Steroids, Tannin, Glycoside and Alkaloid and many others.

Statement of the Research Problem

With the ever increasing need and challenges in society, the use of Moringa oleifera (Horseradish) And Gongronema latifolium, (Utazi) Leaves has been acknowledged as some of the common leafy vegetables used in communities as herbs for ethnomedicine in treating a variety of diseases and also serves as staple nutritive vegetable.

The research problem is that of attempt of investigating the presence of phytochemicals composition in the Gongronema latifolium and Moringa oleifera which may have satisfactorily encouraged their uses over the ages.

Aim and Objectives

To determine the qualitative analysis of constituents that make up the phy tochemical in Gongronema latifolium and Moringa oleiferaleaves.

To carryout comparative analysis on the phytochemicals present in the leaves of the two plants.

Scope of Study

This study focuses on the leaves of Gongronema latifolium and Moringa oleifera, there phytochemical contents.

Friday, 31 December 2021

PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF AFRICAN PEAR

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Plants are important in our everyday existence. They provide our foods, produce the oxygen we breathe, and serve as raw materials for many industrial products such as clothes, foot wears and so many others. Plants also provide raw materials for our buildings and in the manufacture of biofuels, dyes, perfumes, pesticides, adsorbents and drugs. The plant kingdom has proven to be the most useful in the treatment of diseases and they provide an important source of all the world’s pharmaceuticals. The most important of these bioactive constituents of plants are steroids, terpenoids, carotenoids, flavanoids, alkaloids, tannins and glycosides. Plants in all facet of life have served a valuable starting material for drug development (Ajibesin, 2011).

Antibiotics or antimicrobial substances like saponins, glycosides, flavonoids and alkaloids etc are found to be distributed in plants, yet these compounds were not well established due to the lack of knowledge and techniques. The phytoconstituents which are phenols, anthraquinones, alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids and saponins are antibiotic principles of plants. Plants are now occupying important position in allopathic medicine, herbal medicine, homoeopathy and aromatherapy. Medicinal plants are the sources of many important drugs of the modern world. Many of these indigenous medicinal plants are used as spices and food plants; they are also sometimes added to foods meant for pregnant mothers for medicinal purposes (Akinpela and Onakoya, 2006). Many plants are cheaper and more accessible to most people especially in the developing countries than orthodox medicine, and there is lower incidence of adverse effects after use. These reasons might account for their worldwide attention and use. The medicinal properties of some plants have been documented by some researchers ( Akinpelu and Onukoya, 2006).

In an effort to find alternative sources of feedstuffs to replace some or all of the maize in the diet of pigs and other non-ruminant farm animals, several studies have been conducted to determine the suitability of some agro-industrial wastes as feed ingredients.

These include cocoa pod husks, brewers spent grains, rice bran, maize bran, groundnut skins, and wheat bran. However, one by-product that requires consideration is cashew nut testa, a by-product obtained from the processing of cashew nuts. Its utilization as animal feed even at relatively low dosage formulations will minimize its disposal problem as well as reduce the cost of animal feeding.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

It is now known that agricultural materials are used as animal feeds and that they contain phytochemicals. These phytochemicals serve as antibiotic principles of plants.

The need for a cheap, renewable, easily available and nutritive source of material as feed supplements has therefore attracted me to investigate African pear leaf, (APL) as an alternative.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

Broadly stated, the purpose of this work is to investigate/assess the nutritive and medicinal values of African pear leaf as an effective replacement in animal diets. Specifically, this work investigated:

The proximate constituents of African pear leaf; and
The qualitative and quantitative phytochemicals of African pear leaf.

Thursday, 30 December 2021

PRODUCTION OF COCONUT OIL FROM COCONUT

ABSTRACT

This study was carried out to extract coconut oil from coconut. Coconut oil (Cocos nucifera L.) has a unique role in the diet as an important physiologically functional food. The health and nutritional benefits that can be derived from consuming coconut oil have been recognized in many parts of the world for centuries. There are few techniques for coconut oil extraction, such as physical, chemical, and fermentation or enzymatic processes using microbial inoculum as enzymatic starter. Starter with different concentration (1.0; 2.5; 5.0; and 10%) of microbial strains were added into coconut cream and allowed to be fermented for over night. The extracted oil was analyzed for further experiment, especially on its antibacterial activity. The maximum yield of 27.2% was achieved by adding 5.0% starter. Water content, acid value, FFA, and peroxide value of the fermented coconut oil were 0.3%, 0.45%, 0.22% and 2.54% respectively. A gas chromatogram showed that this fermented oil contained high lauric acid (46.82%), and 6.01% caprylic, 7.5% capric, 17.02% miristic, 7.21% palmitic, 3.11% palmitoleic, 5.41% stearic, and 1.3% linoleic acid, respectively. An inhibitory effect of such kind coconut oil which contains potential fatty acid against bacterial growth was further examined. It was found that this edible oil exhibited antibacterial activity to inhibit the growth of Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas fluorescence, Bacillus cereus and Salmonella; however it showed slightly inhibitory effect when it was exposed to Bacillus cereus and Escherichia coli.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

Oil is extracted from a number of fruits, nut and seed for use in cooking and soap making or as an ingredient in other foods such as boiled or fried food. Oil is a valuable product with universal demand and the possible income from oil extraction is therefore often enough to justify the relatively high cost of setting up and running small-scale oil milling business.

Coconut oil is an edible oil extracted from kernel or meat of matured coconut harvested from the palm (Cocos nucifera). It has various applications in food, medicine and industry (UNIFEM, 1987).

Coconut (Cocos nucifera) grown in about 93 countries in the area of 11.8million has produces 10.9million tones of copra equivalent. Coconuts provide food, drinks, medicine, health, shelter and aesthetics. Since every part of coconut is used for mankind, it is grown as tree of life, or rather “tree of nature” one of the natural product of coconut is that coconut oil has been used from time immemorial as foods, Food ingredient and functional foods, besides used in pharmaceuticals, nutriceuticals, cosmetics and industrial uses including bio fuel, It is known as miracle oil.

Historically, coconut and their extracted oil have served man as important foods for thousands of years. The use of coconut oil was advertised in the united state, in the popular cook book at the end of 19^th century. Both the health promoting attribute of coconut oil and those functional properties useful to the homemaker were recognized 100 years ago. These attributes, in addition to some new attributes should be great interest of producing as well as consuming countries (Ellis, 1997).

Coconut oil has been a life saver for many people. The health and nutritional benefit derived from coconut oil is unique and compelling (Enig, 1998) had stated that medium chain triglycerides, a fraction of coconut oil has been identified as an important, medically efficacious food. Indeed, diet for critically ill children, premature infants and hospitalized partners used medium chain triglycerides as principle source of fat. Coconut oil when used in usual diets containing all classes of fat proves to be anticholesterogenic.

Coconut oil can be extracted through dry or wet processing. The dry processing require the meat to be extracted from the meat and it is been dried using fire, sunlight or kilns to create copra. The copra is dried under sunlight for a maximum of seven days and a minimum of five days. While wet processing uses raw coconut rather than dried copra i.e. a fresh matured coconut. Different method can be used in extracting oil from coconut and the method must be efficient for the extraction in order to yield the desired result.

1.1 Historical Background

The coconut(Cocos nucifera) is a member of the family Arecaceae (palm family) and is one of the nature’s gifts to mankind (William, 1997).

It is the only accepted species in the genus Cocos, and is a large palm, growing up to 30m tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 m long, and pinnae 60–90 cm long; old leaves break away cleanly, leaving the trunk smooth and the term coconut can refer to the entire coconut palm, the seed, or the fruit, which is not a botanical nut (World Wildlife Fund, 2010).

Coconut has been part of peoples’ diet and livelihoods in the tropical countries of Asia, the Pacific, South and Central America and Africa for thousands of years. In these areas, native meals are cooked with either coconut milk or coconut oil. The coconut palm is grown throughout the tropics for decoration, as well as for its many culinary and non-culinary uses; virtually every part of the coconut palm can be utilized by humans in some manner. However, the extent of cultivation in the tropics is threatening a number of habitats such as mangroves; an example of such damage to an ecoregion is in the Petenes mangroves of the Yucatan (Foale, 2003).

Coconut palms are believed to be largely cross-pollinated, although some dwarf varieties are self-pollinating. The meat of the coconut is the edible endosperm, located on the inner surface of the shell. Inside the endosperm layer, coconuts contain an edible clear liquid that is sweet, salty, or both (Fife, 2005).

Although coconut meat contains less fat than many oilseeds and nuts such as almonds, it is noted for its high amount of medium-chain saturated fat and about 90% of the fat found in coconut meat is saturated, a proportion exceeding that of foods such as lard, butter, and tallow. There has been some debate as to whether or not the saturated fat in coconuts is less unhealthy than other forms of saturated fat (see coconut oil). Like most nut meats, coconut meat contains less sugar and more protein than popular fruits such as bananas, apples and oranges. It is relatively high in minerals such as iron, phosphorus and zinc.

Coconut oil is extracted from the kernel or meat of matured coconut harvested from the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera). Throughout the tropical world it has provided the primary source of fat in the diets of millions of people for generations. It has various applications in food, medicine, and industry. Coconut oil is very heat stable so it makes an excellent cooking and frying oil. It has a smoke point of about 360°F (180°C). Because of its stability it is slow to oxidize and thus resistant to rancidity, lasting up to two years due to high saturated fat content. In the wet process, coconut milk is made first and then the oil is extracted from the milk (Fife, 2005).

Coconut kernel is shredded and mixed with water. Then it is pressed and the oil is extracted. The resulting oil/water mixture is left to sit and it separates into two layers, watery on the bottom, creamy on top. The thicker cream is decanted off the top and the original method of separation involved heating or fermenting the milk to separate the oil. This traditional method made a very unstable oil with a short shelf life meant for quick daily use. Due to its miscible nature coconut oil cannot be separated naturally from the cream (Ohler, 1984).

All high volume modern methods incorporate heating, fermentation, and or centrifugal force to separate the oil from the water. Some minor heating is generally done afterwards (often in a low temperature vacuum chamber) to drive off excess moisture and produce a more purified product and to extend shelf life. Proper harvesting of the coconut (the age of a coconut can be 2 to 20 months when picked; the time of harvesting makes a significant difference in the efficiency of the oil making process) and the use of a centrifuge process make the best final extracted product (Woodruff,1970).

1.2 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this project is to extract coconut oil from coconut using fermentation or enzymatic processes with microbial inoculum as enzymatic starter

PHYTOCHEMICAL AND MINERAL ANALYSIS OF UNRIPE CARICA PAPAYA AND MUSA PARADISIACA

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the phytochemical of unripe carica papaya and Musa paradisiaca peel, seed and flesh which are commonly discarded as food wastes. Using standard methods of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC), Mineral analysis of the samples were performed using Energy dispersive X – ray Fluorescence (EDXRF). The phytochemical screening was carried out using water, acetone and ethanol extracts of the peel, seed, and flesh was also carried out in accordance to standard methods of (AOAC). The results showed, the ethanol extract of unripe carica papaya flesh showed the presence of steroids, terpenoid, flavonoid, tannins, phlobatannins, cardiac glycosides, saponins, and alkaloid, while the seed and peel showed the presence of terpenoid, flavonoid, tannins, phlobatannins, alkaloid and steroid, terpenoid, phlobatannins, cardiac glycosides, alkaloid respectively. The ethanol extract of unripe Musa paradisiaca flesh and peel showed the presence of steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, saponins, alkaloid and terpenoids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, saponins, alkaloid respectively. The results showed, the acetone extract of unripe carica papaya flesh showed the presence of terpenoid, flavonoid, phlobatannins, and cardiac glycosides, while the seed and peel showed the presence of steroid and terpenoid, flavonoid, cardiac glycosides, alkaloid respectively. The ethanol extract of unripe Musa paradisiaca flesh and peel showed the presence of steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, saponins, alkaloid and steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, saponins, alkaloid respectively. The results showed, the water extract of unripe carica papaya flesh showed the presence of terpenoid, flavonoid, phlobatannins, cardiac glycosides, saponins, and alkaloid, while the seed and peel showed the presence of saponins and steroid, flavonoids, tannins, phlobatannins respectively. The ethanol extract of unripe Musa paradisiaca flesh and peel showed the presence of terpenoids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, alkaloid and terpenoids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, saponins, alkaloid respectively. The mineral analysis revealed the presence (Ca > Fe > Rb > Zn > K > Cu > Ti > Mn > Cr > Ni > Se) in seed, (Ca > Fe > K > Mn > Ti > Ni > Cu > Zn > Cr) and (Ca > Fe > K > Rb > Cu > Ni) in peel and flesh of carica papaya respectively. While the flesh and peel of musa paradisiaca revealed the following minerals (K > Ca > Fe > Ti > Cu > Ni > Mn > Se >Rb) and (Ca > Fe > K > Mn > Ti > Ni > Cu > Zn) respectively. Notably, few of the heavy metals (Ti, Cr, Rb, Ni) assayed was detected in few of the samples. This study concludes that unripe carica papaya and unripe Musa paradisiaca peels, flesh, and seeds could serve as promising sources of nutrients and bioactive compounds essential for the health of both livestock and humans.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0. INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Phytochemicals are compounds that occur naturally in plants. They contribute to the color, flavor and smell of plants. They form part of plants natural defense mechanism against diseases. Their presence in plant gives its medicinal value and produce physiological action in human body (Uzama et al., 2013). Some of the phytochemicals are water soluble while others are not (Adefagha and Oboh, 2011).

Some of these important groups of phytochemicals include phenolics of various types including flavonoids such as resversterol, catechins, anthocyanins and isoflavones as well as phenolic acids and lignin (Steinmet et al., 2000). Flavonoids are super antioxidants and free radical scavengers. They prevent oxidative cell damage caused by these free radicals. In this way they prevent chronic diseases such as cancer and tumours, and provide anti inflammatory actions (Okwu, 2001A and Okwu, 2001B), Saponins cause the haemolysis of cells, they prevent cancer by preventing DNA from damage. They are also antiviral and they can be cardio-protective through their ability to lower blood Cholesterol level (Coe and Anderson, 2001).

Alkaloids seems to be the most significantly and efficiently phytochemical in terms of therapeutic use. They form precursors for the synthesis of drugs when isolated in pure form. They show high physiological effect on animals and humans. (Okwu, 2001A).

Carica papaya Linnaeus, (pawpaw), belongs to the family of Caricaceae. Papaya is not a tree but an herbaceous succulent plants that posses rapid growth rate and self supporting stems. (Dick Gross, 2003). Papaya is a large perennial herb with a rapid growth rate. The plants are usually short-lived, and has complicated means of reproduction. The plants are male, hermaphrodite, or female (Bruce and Peter, 2008).The male plants are uncommon, but sometimes occur when homeowners collect their own seeds. These plants are self pollinated (Jari, 2009). The papaya fruit, as well as all other parts of the plant, contain a milky juice in which an active substance known as papain is present. The seed is used for intestinal worms when chewed. The unripe fruit is used as a remedy for ulcer and impotence. Chewing the seeds of ripe pawpaw fruit also helps to clear nasal congestion, (Elizabeth, 2018).

The fruits are big oval in shape and sometimes called pepo– like berries, since they resemble melon by having a central seed cavity (Fig. 1). Fruits are borne axillary on the main stem, usually singly but sometimes in small clusters. Fruits weigh from 226.796 up to 9071.85g, and are green unlike ripe, turning yellow or orange when ripe. The edible portion surrounds the large central seed cavity. Plants begin bearing fruits in 6-12 months (Vijay et al., 2014) depending on cultivation and temperature.

Musa paradisiacal (Plantain) is an herbaceous plant (up to 9 m long) with a robust tree like pseudostem, a crown of large elongated oval deep-green leaves (up to 365 cm in length and 61 cm in width) with a prominent midrib. Plantain fruits are oblong, fleshy, 5-7cm long in natural form and longer in the cultivated varieties. The ripe fruits are sweet and full of seeds and the peel is thicker than other banana. The fruit usually harvested at it’s mature but unripe stage, ripens within two to seven days, thus making plantain a highly perishable crop, particularly in the overripe stage (FAO, 2010). It is usually eaten as an energy yielding food. Its hypoglycemic actions in diabetic animals have been reported (Ojewole et al., 2003). An average plantain has about 220 calories and is a good source of potassium and dietary fiber. It is rich in carbohydrate, iron, vitamins and minerals. The nutritious food is ideal for diabetes, children and pregnant women. Its regular consumption helps to cure anemia and maintain a healthy heart (Ibeam et al., 2016).

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study is to determine the phytochemical and mineral composition of unripe Carica papaya (peel, seed and flesh) and Musa paradisiaca (peel and flesh)

The objectives which this research intends to achieve include the following;

Sample Extraction using ethanol, acetone and water.
To determine the photochemicals: tannin, steroids, saponins, flavanoids, cardiac glycosides, terperiods alkaloids and phlobatanns content of the unripe Carica papaya and Musa paradisiaca.
To determine the minerals composition of the unripe Carica papaya and Musa paradisiaca.
To statistically compare the phytochemical and mineral content of the unripe Carica papaya and Musa paradisiaca.

1.3. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The use of unripe Carica papaya and Musa paradisiaca as food and medicine has not been given much attention; therefore, this research work tends to investigate the phytochemical and minerals potential of flesh, seeds, and peels of both plants.

1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of this work is to identify new sources of therapeutical and industrial important compounds like alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, saponins, steroids, tannins, terpenoids and the nutritional values of unripe Carica papaya and Musa paradisiacal to human health.

1.5. SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This research work is restricted to the phytochemical and mineral composition of unripe Carica papaya (peel, seed and flesh) and unripe Musa paradisiaca (peel and flesh)sold in Nasarawa Main Market, Nasarawa State. The limitation of this research work is due to inadequate power supply during the experimental stage and cost of carrying out the experiment.