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Desertification, Definition, Causing and Solution

Desertification, Definition, Causing and Solution

Introduction

Desertification is one of the major ecological problems facing the Northern region with Nasarawa inclusive. In Nasarawa local government area, it has and still threatening the livelihood of the rural farmers. Nasarawa local government of Nasarawa state like many other areas of the north is currently been threatened with desertification problem which has worsened the socio-economic and environmental condition of the people. Practical evidence shows that significant number of rural farmers in  Nasarawa Local Government area live below poverty level due to asymmetrical relationship between poverty and land degradation resulting from desertification.

Definition of Desertification

Desertification can be seen as a type of land degradation in dry lands in which biological productivity is lost due to natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile land becomes arid. It can also be seen as a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry land region becomes increasingly arid, typically losing its’ bodies of water.

Causes of desertification in Nasarawa

• Overgrazing: Overgrazing occurs when the consumption of vegetation biomass by livestock and other grazers (e.g., wildlife) exceeds the vegetation’s ability to recover in a timely fashion, thus exposing the soil and reducing the vegetation’s productive capacity. In Nasarawa animal grazing is a huge problem in different parts of the town as cattle  and other livestock are seen feeding on the vegetation to a devastating stage where the land / vegetation hardly recover.  Otherwise stated, overgrazing takes place when vegetation or pasture is repeatedly removed from the land, and it is not given enough time to continue growing.

In Nasarawa overgrazing overgrazing signifies a serious environmental challenge in maintaining the natural balance of livestock on grazing lands, which reduces the productivity, usefulness, and biodiversity of the land. Overgrazing is mostly caused by the lack of proper animal and wildlife feeding management on the available pasture is the leading cause of overgrazing.

• Deforestation: Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use.

Deforestation is a great environmental issue in Nasarawa as the trees are cut down on a daily basis for the production of charcoals and firewood for cooking and clearance of the forest for agricultural purposes.

Deforestation – a removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in habitat damage, biodiversity loss, and aridity. Deforestation causes extinction, changes to climatic conditions, desertification, and displacement of populations, as observed by current conditions and in the past through the fossil record. Deforestation also reduces biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide, increasing negative feedback cycles contributing to global warming. Global warming also puts increased pressure on communities who seek food security by clearing forests for agricultural use and reducing arable land more generally.

• Excessive use of Fertilizer and Pesticides: Chemical fertiliser overuse can contribute to soil acidification and soil crust, thereby reducing the content of organic matter, humus content, beneficial species, stunting plant growth, altering the pH of the soil, growing pests, and even leading to the release of greenhouse gases.

The use of excessive amounts of fertilizer and pesticides by farmers in Nasarawa local government to maximize their crop yields in the short terms often leads to significant damages for the soil and the environmental condition in general. In the long run, this may turn from arable into arid land and it will no longer be suitable for farming purposes after a few years.

The adverse effect of chemical fertilizers and pesticides itself begins with the processing of chemicals whose products and by-products are certain harmful chemicals or gases that cause air pollution, such as NH₄, CO₂, CH₄, etc. And it will cause water pollution when the waste from industries is disposed of untreated in nearby water bodies. It also involves the most damaging impact of the accumulation of chemical waste in the bodies of water, i.e. water eutrophication. And its constant use, when applied to the soil, degrades the health and quality of the soil, thereby causing soil contamination.

• Over drafting of ground water: Ground water is the fresh water found under ground and also one of the largest water source. Over drafting is the process in which ground water is extracted in excess of the equilibrium yield of the aquifer that is pumping or the excessive pulling up of groundwater from the underground aquifers.

Extracting too much water (overdrafting) can lead to negative impacts such as a drop of the water table, land subsidence, and loss of surface water reaching the streams. In extreme cases, the supply of water that naturally recharges the aquifer is pulled directly from streams and rivers, lowering their water levels.

• Mining: Mining is another big reason for desertification in Nasarawa local government. Mining is the process of extracting useful minerals from the Earth, including the seas. A mineral, with a few exceptions, is an inorganic substance occurring in nature that has a definite chemical composition and distinctive physical properties or molecular structure.

Nasarawa is blessed with many solid minerals which the state as a whole is known as home of solid minerals. Minerals such Barite, Coal, Clay, Lead-Zinc, Sault, Gemstone, Silica Sand, Iron Ore, Granite, Tantalite, Marble, Mica, Cassiterite, Limestone, Aquamarine are mined in Nasarawa on a large scale. Years of uncontrolled mining of solid minerals and precious stones have turned many farmlands into pits. A field where peasant farmers used to plant rice and fruits is now an industrial site from where cracking noise from bulldozers and dynamites steals the sleep of residents.

For Mining, large areas of land have to be used, which causes deforestation as well as pollution of the nearby waters. By the time most of the natural resources have been extracted, and mining practices are no more profitable, the soil gets damaged significantly and the land becomes arid which may not be recoverable and desertification occurs.

The excessive mining in Nasarawa can result in erosion, sinkholes, loss of biodiversity, or the contamination of soil, groundwater, and surface water by the chemicals emitted from mining processes, thus causing desertification. These processes also affect the atmosphere from the emissions of carbon which have an effect on the quality of human health and biodiversity.

Solution to the problems of desertification in Nasarawa Local Government

1. Integrating land and water management to protect soil from erosion, and other forms of degradation. One of the key actions to combat desertification is water management — saving, reuse of treated water, rainwater harvesting, desalination, or direct use of seawater for salt-loving plants, as well as re-injection in the system after a new treatment. The availability of clean water, especially for regions in which fresh water is not readily available through groundwater or freshwater sources such as rivers and lakes, often requires water production via saline water sources.
2. By protecting the vegetative cover which can be a major instrument for soil conservation against wind and water.
3. By integrating the use of land for grazing and farming where conditions are favorable, allowing for a more efficient cycling of nutrients within the agricultural system.
4. Applying a combination of traditional practices with locally acceptable and locally adapted land use technology.
5. Giving the local communities the capacity to prevent desertification and to manage dry land resources effectively
6. The government of the state should place more emphasize to people living in Nasarawa local government to make more use of irrigation farming

REFERENCES

Abubakar, I.K., (2010). Desertification in Nigeria. Retrieved 12-07-2014 from www.Sundaydaily

Betta, H.E., Ashong, C.A. and Basher, S.A., (2013). Press Coverage of Climate Change Issues in Nigeria and Implications for Public Participation Opportunities. Journal of Sustainable Development; 6( 2: 58-69;

Climate Change Challenge.org. (2012). Climate change. Retrieved from May 11, 2012, from http://www.climatechangechallenge.org

Dregne, H. E. (1986). Desertification of Arid Land. http://www.ciesin.coloubia.edu
Emodi, E.E., (2013). Drought and Desertification as they affect Nigerian Environment. Journal of Environmental Management Safety. 4(1): 45-54

PRESERVATION AND CONSERVATION IN LIBRARY

DEFINITION OF LIBRARY

Library is a building or room containing collection of books, periodical and summaries films and recorded music for use or borrowing by the public or the members of an institution.

PRESERVATION

Preservation refers to the set of activities that aim to prolong the life of a record and relevant materials or improve access to it through non-interceptive means. This includes action taken to influence records creators’ prior selection and acquisition.

CONSERVATION

Conservation refers to the treatment and repair of individual to slow decay or restore them to a useable state. The main objective of conservation is to keep library and archival of materials in their original format for as long as possible.

Library materials can be preserved through remedial treatment of individual material (flatting book and paper repair, binding).

IMPORTANCE OF PRESERVATION AND CONSERVATION IN LIBRARY

1. To prevent materials that are damaging from further damaging.
2. To know the material that has already been damaged in the library collection.
3. To bring back the materials that has already gone bad into active stage.
4. To identify the material that are damaging or that has already been damaged.

TYPES AND NATURE OF LIBRARY MATERIAL

There are three types of library materials which are:- Printed, Non-printed materials and library equipment.

1. Printed Materials: These are materials printed on paper e.g books, year books, manuals, reference books.
2. Non-printed Materials: These are source that are not printed e.g DVD/VCD, e-book, music CD, and taps. They are product of advanced technology.
3. Library Equipment: They are the equipment found in the library e.g tables, chairs, computers, fans.

FUNCTION OF PRESERVATION AND CONSERVATION

1. Conservation: The main objective of conservation is to keep library materials in their original format for as long as possible.
2. Collection Care: This refers to the general maintenance been carried out on the library materials.
3. Disaster Planning: This is an unexpected event which put collection at risk.

CAUSES OF DAMAGED MATERIALS IN THE LIBRARY

1. Mechanical Damage: It could be: – (i) The way the book is made. (ii) Improper use of the book. (iii) Violent influence from outside.
2. Biological Damage: Biological damages are damages caused by different living organisms such as insect, rodents, man.
3.  Chemical Damage: These are caused through chemical reactions and whose causes are:-
4. Reaction caused by substance which penetrate from outside
5. Reactions which are long term processes of a natural character.
6. Disaster such as fire and flood can also cause damage of library materials.

PREVENTION OF LIBRARY MATERIALS

1. Handling and use of library materials: Material in the library should be handed carefully by storing on a smooth shelve. And materials should be purchase in abundance to reduce too much hand on a particular book.
2. Storage Environment: The environment conditions in which items are used, stored and exhibited are critical factor in the reactions that cause items to deteriorate. E.g relative humidity, light, temperature.
3. Reformatting: This is the process of capturing library and archive materials to ensure the survival of their content and to extend access.

PREVENTION OF NON-PAPER BASED MATERIAL

Non-Paper based materials such as sound recording audio and video reduces the risk of digital material. Sound recording is use in electronic process to remove unwanted noise from the sound.

WEEDING

Weeding is the removing of some library materials from the shelve base on damage or excessively use. Weeding is important for several reasons among which are the creation of more space and the reduction in the cost of processing and maintaining library materials.

IMPORTANCE OF WEEDING

1. To remove books with out dated information.
2. To identify books that are damage or in poor condition.
3. To remove books that are not library used in the library.
4. To identify gaps in the collection and make new purchases.

PROBLEMS OF PRESERVATION AND CONSERVATION OF LIBRARIES RESOURCES

1. Low level of conservation awareness of library staff
2. Non availability of school and training programmes to train these categories of personnel.
3. Physical Isolation: It refers to where some of the library resources are from isolated places.

REFERENCE

Reference books are materials that are consulted from time to time for a specific item of information. They are not meant from cover to cover, they are not broad in scope, they either general or specific in scope.

TYPES OF REFERENCE MATERIAL SOURCE

1. Atlases:- Contain an organised group of physical, political, road and thematic maps.
2. Bibliographies:- Contains one or more list of resources and materials sharing some common attribute such as location, publishing date, subject.
3. Dictionaries:- Contain words of a given language and other information such as their origins pronunciations, and definitions.
4. Almanacs:- Contain specific facts, statistical data, table of comparative information organized lists of books reference related to people.

CHARACTERISTICS OF REFERENCE MATERIAL

1. They are housed in a separate section of the library
2. They are revised on regular basis to keep them current
3. They are more expensive than other types of a book in the library.

References

Arfanis, P. and H. Javis (2010) Archive in Cambodia; Neglected Institutions Archives and Manuscripts Australian

Arnoult, J. M (2000) Libraries of the Ancient Cities of Mauritania International Preservation News 21:21

Asogwa, E. B; and L.L Ezema (2012) The Challenge of Preservation of Archives and Records in the Electronic Age PNLA Quarterly 76:3

Cunha, G. M and D. G Cunha (1999) Conservation of Library Materials. A Manual and bibliography on the care repair and restoration of library materials I and II Metuchen Scarecrow Press

Davies, J. (1979). A Study of the Basic Standard and Methods in Preservation and Conservation Workshops Application to developing Countries Brussels UNESCO and ICA

Importance OF Vitamins supplement

Importance OF Vitamins supplement

Supplementation can help meet the higher nutritional needs of ones more demanding lifestyle or medical condition. Stresses, medical complications, and energetic living can all create a greater need in your specific body for very specific minerals or vitamins. Supplementation can also help correct deficiencies in the very food you are eating. Chemicals used in farming, depleted soils, refinement, preservatives, and additives all create deep imbalances in our food supply itself. Through supplementing your diet, one can make great strides in correcting for these food supply deficiencies. It helps in protecting onse health and preventing disease.

It is clear that a multivitamin supplement has the ability to increase our wellness. Calcium and Vitamin D are proven to aid in bone health, Vitamin D also supports a healthy colon and may prevent colon cancer and many chronic conditions, Folic Acid is proven to reduce birth defects and has been linked to a lower risk of heart disease, colon cancer and other cancers including breast cancer, B Vitamins are proven to increase energy and aid in neurological functions, Magnesium is proven to relax the body, antioxidants are proven to prevent certain cancers, and both Vitamin C and Zinc are proven to increase immune function.

SUSTENANCE AND MAINTENANCE BUSINESS GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

SUSTENANCE AND MAINTENANCE BUSINESS GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

QUESTION

As a business man for about 7 years experience, invalidating, planning and implementation to see the light of your business success, but still suffering from certain constraints, explain way and manners in which you can sustain and maintain business growth and development

INTRODUCTION

Businesses organization of any type and size look for ways to expand their market share and increase revenues. Organization often choose to implement specific growth strategies to overcome several challenges faced and advance their business. Business growth and development is a phenomenon that occurs when business owners, employees and outside factors influence the success of a company. A business grows when it expands a customer base, increases revenue or produces more product.

Growth and development is the goal of most businesses and is the reason behind many decisions that affect the daily workings of a company both internally and externally. Business growth is impacted by consumer trends, market opportunities and decisions made by company leadership.

Growth and development of a business organization takes planning and concentrated efforts that fall into these main categories: Organic growth which happens when a business creates the right conditions for expansion. This includes physically expanding office space to allow for company growth or increasing product offerings;A strategic approach which focuses on long-term growth through specific initiatives. Businesses often move into this growth stage after a period of organic growth. Companies may try to gain a share in untapped markets or plan to produce new inventory; Partnership/merger is growth and development strategy which occurs when a company joins with another business to create more market opportunities and finally an internal growth strategy that works to maximize internal processes to increase business and revenue.

WAY AND MANNERS THAT CAN SUSTAIN AND MAINTAIN BUSINESS GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

For business organization to surmount their challenges, the need to focus on planning. A business plan is a written document of research proposing business activities before a business owner begins developing a product. Planning should begin with the development of a forecast for profits, income, and cash flow for five years.

Chaudhry et al. defined strategic planning as the process of awareness on business environment, documentation about the future course of action, and awareness of short and long-term implications of strategies.

Therefore, business organization need to face the challenge of developing strategies which will add value for sustainable growth and development. Thus, strategic planning is a process aimed at documenting strategies which may result in a positive performance of the business. 

There for the business organization to be sustained and maintain business growth and development the following must be put into consideration

1. Market penetration: Market penetration occurs when a business tries to generate further growth within their current market. To do this they may try to lower prices or increase marketing efforts to gain more market share. Increasing brand awareness can be an effective way to implement this strategy.
2. Product development: Businesses may choose a growth strategy that involves innovating current products or creating new ones to increase revenue. Some companies choose to take existing inventory and add new features to attract more customers. Investing in the design and creation of new products is one way businesses foster growth.
3. Market expansion: In the market expansion method, a business tries to expand in their current market by reaching untapped customer bases. For example, an office supply company may try to gain market share by selling to educational institutions, healthcare organizations and government agencies instead of strictly selling to corporate office clients.
4. Vertical integration: Companies who decide to growth through vertical integration strategies take on another part of the manufacturing or distribution process. This may mean that a company begins to produce their own packaging materials or buys a factory that produces a key item for a product.
5. Productivity and efficiency: Some businesses grow by changing their processes to increase productivity. Efficient production methods can help cut costs and increase revenue. A business may choose to conduct an audit of their manufacturing processes, distribution methods and other parts of their production chain.
6. New geographies: Investing marketing efforts into expansion in other locations can also be a growth strategy for businesses. This can mean regional, national or even worldwide expansion of product offerings and distribution. Offering products outside of a current geographical area can generate new revenue streams if distribution is also handled effectively.
7. Share of wallet: By focusing on customer retention and quality service, companies can initiate growth by expanding sales to current customers. Selling to existing customers typically costs less than other marketing efforts. This strategy can be effective for companies with excellent customer service practices and a loyal customer base.
8. Diversification: Companies that choose to grow through diversification create new products for a completely new market. This kind of growth may mean moving into international markets or areas where the company has no prior sales history. Some companies do this by looking for areas of large-scale expansion, hoping to gain market share. Diversified companies may own a stake in multiple industries through a range of product offerings.
9. Acquisitions: Companies may implement a growth strategy by buying another business. A company might buy out a competitor to absorb their market share and acquire their assets. The parent company will then experience growth in sales and revenue. This strategy encourages more immediate growth because a business is essentially buying into a market instead of having to invest time in organic growth methods.
10. New channels: Offering products through new distribution channels is another way for businesses to expand. For example, a company may decide to offer product in retail stores after operating exclusively online. A company may also decide to work with consumers instead of selling just business to business.
11. New business models: Changing the way you do business can affect growth patterns in a company. When a business decides to make operational changes, they have the chance to create more growth opportunities using other strategies.
12. Investment: Owning shares and investing in other companies may be a way to expand business growth. When a company uses their revenue to increase the assets of another business, they have the opportunity to receive benefits as a stakeholder. This may include dividends, stock options or other investment earnings.
13. Market segmentation: By focusing on a small segment of industry and growing specifically in that area, businesses often find growth opportunities. Small businesses can benefit from this strategy in markets where big businesses already dominate a large portion of the market share.
14. Business partnerships: Strategic partnerships can increase business growth by leveraging the key elements of two or more brands. In this strategy, businesses often create a contract with clear terms outlining the agreement for both parties. Companies from different industries or markets benefit from gaining the attention of another consumer group.

CONCLUSION

Business intelligence including the technologies, processes, and applications needed to provide complete data to enable productive decisions by managers is one area explored by business organization to overcome the challenges of sustaining growth and development. Thus is believed that adopted the strategies outline above the any business organization can sustain growth and development.

REFERENCES

1. Crals, E., and Vereeck, L. (2004). Sustainable Entrepreneurship in SMEs. Theory and Practice. Research Gate Journals. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net
2. Erhum, M.O. (2015). A Sustainable Approach to Economic Development in Nigeria. A Legal Perspective. Journal of Economic and Sustainable Development 6(14); 1-6.
3. Okpara, J. O. (2011). Factors constraining the growth and survival of SME in Nigeria: Implications for poverty alleviation. Management Research Review, 34, 156-171. doi:10.1108/01409171111102786

SUSTENANCE AND MAINTENANCE BUSINESS GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

SUSTENANCE AND MAINTENANCE BUSINESS GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

QUESTION

As a business man for about 7 years experience, invalidating, planning and implementation to see the light of your business success, but still suffering from certain constraints, explain way and manners in which you can sustain and maintain business growth and development

INTRODUCTION

Businesses organization of any type and size look for ways to expand their market share and increase revenues. Organization often choose to implement specific growth strategies to overcome several challenges faced and advance their business. Business growth and development is a phenomenon that occurs when business owners, employees and outside factors influence the success of a company. A business grows when it expands a customer base, increases revenue or produces more product.

Growth and development is the goal of most businesses and is the reason behind many decisions that affect the daily workings of a company both internally and externally. Business growth is impacted by consumer trends, market opportunities and decisions made by company leadership.

Growth and development of a business organization takes planning and concentrated efforts that fall into these main categories: Organic growth which happens when a business creates the right conditions for expansion. This includes physically expanding office space to allow for company growth or increasing product offerings;A strategic approach which focuses on long-term growth through specific initiatives. Businesses often move into this growth stage after a period of organic growth. Companies may try to gain a share in untapped markets or plan to produce new inventory; Partnership/merger is growth and development strategy which occurs when a company joins with another business to create more market opportunities and finally an internal growth strategy that works to maximize internal processes to increase business and revenue.

WAY AND MANNERS THAT CAN SUSTAIN AND MAINTAIN BUSINESS GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

For business organization to surmount their challenges, the need to focus on planning. A business plan is a written document of research proposing business activities before a business owner begins developing a product. Planning should begin with the development of a forecast for profits, income, and cash flow for five years.

Chaudhry et al. defined strategic planning as the process of awareness on business environment, documentation about the future course of action, and awareness of short and long-term implications of strategies.

Therefore, business organization need to face the challenge of developing strategies which will add value for sustainable growth and development. Thus, strategic planning is a process aimed at documenting strategies which may result in a positive performance of the business. 

There for the business organization to be sustained and maintain business growth and development the following must be put into consideration

1. Market penetration: Market penetration occurs when a business tries to generate further growth within their current market. To do this they may try to lower prices or increase marketing efforts to gain more market share. Increasing brand awareness can be an effective way to implement this strategy.
2. Product development: Businesses may choose a growth strategy that involves innovating current products or creating new ones to increase revenue. Some companies choose to take existing inventory and add new features to attract more customers. Investing in the design and creation of new products is one way businesses foster growth.
3. Market expansion: In the market expansion method, a business tries to expand in their current market by reaching untapped customer bases. For example, an office supply company may try to gain market share by selling to educational institutions, healthcare organizations and government agencies instead of strictly selling to corporate office clients.
4. Vertical integration: Companies who decide to growth through vertical integration strategies take on another part of the manufacturing or distribution process. This may mean that a company begins to produce their own packaging materials or buys a factory that produces a key item for a product.
5. Productivity and efficiency: Some businesses grow by changing their processes to increase productivity. Efficient production methods can help cut costs and increase revenue. A business may choose to conduct an audit of their manufacturing processes, distribution methods and other parts of their production chain.
6. New geographies: Investing marketing efforts into expansion in other locations can also be a growth strategy for businesses. This can mean regional, national or even worldwide expansion of product offerings and distribution. Offering products outside of a current geographical area can generate new revenue streams if distribution is also handled effectively.
7. Share of wallet: By focusing on customer retention and quality service, companies can initiate growth by expanding sales to current customers. Selling to existing customers typically costs less than other marketing efforts. This strategy can be effective for companies with excellent customer service practices and a loyal customer base.
8. Diversification: Companies that choose to grow through diversification create new products for a completely new market. This kind of growth may mean moving into international markets or areas where the company has no prior sales history. Some companies do this by looking for areas of large-scale expansion, hoping to gain market share. Diversified companies may own a stake in multiple industries through a range of product offerings.
9. Acquisitions: Companies may implement a growth strategy by buying another business. A company might buy out a competitor to absorb their market share and acquire their assets. The parent company will then experience growth in sales and revenue. This strategy encourages more immediate growth because a business is essentially buying into a market instead of having to invest time in organic growth methods.
10. New channels: Offering products through new distribution channels is another way for businesses to expand. For example, a company may decide to offer product in retail stores after operating exclusively online. A company may also decide to work with consumers instead of selling just business to business.
11. New business models: Changing the way you do business can affect growth patterns in a company. When a business decides to make operational changes, they have the chance to create more growth opportunities using other strategies.
12. Investment: Owning shares and investing in other companies may be a way to expand business growth. When a company uses their revenue to increase the assets of another business, they have the opportunity to receive benefits as a stakeholder. This may include dividends, stock options or other investment earnings.
13. Market segmentation: By focusing on a small segment of industry and growing specifically in that area, businesses often find growth opportunities. Small businesses can benefit from this strategy in markets where big businesses already dominate a large portion of the market share.
14. Business partnerships: Strategic partnerships can increase business growth by leveraging the key elements of two or more brands. In this strategy, businesses often create a contract with clear terms outlining the agreement for both parties. Companies from different industries or markets benefit from gaining the attention of another consumer group.

CONCLUSION

Business intelligence including the technologies, processes, and applications needed to provide complete data to enable productive decisions by managers is one area explored by business organization to overcome the challenges of sustaining growth and development. Thus is believed that adopted the strategies outline above the any business organization can sustain growth and development.

REFERENCES

1. Crals, E., and Vereeck, L. (2004). Sustainable Entrepreneurship in SMEs. Theory and Practice. Research Gate Journals. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net
2. Erhum, M.O. (2015). A Sustainable Approach to Economic Development in Nigeria. A Legal Perspective. Journal of Economic and Sustainable Development 6(14); 1-6.
3. Okpara, J. O. (2011). Factors constraining the growth and survival of SME in Nigeria: Implications for poverty alleviation. Management Research Review, 34, 156-171. doi:10.1108/01409171111102786

PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

Echinodermata is a phylum of about 7000 living species distributed among five classes. It is any member of the phylum Echinodermata which comes from the Ancient Greek  ‘hedgehog’, and ‘skin’ of marine animals. Echinoderms are found on the sea bed at every ocean depth, from the intertidal zone to the abyssal zone. The phylum Echinodermata is the second-largest grouping of deuterostomes (a superphylum), after the chordates (which include the vertebrates, such as birds, fishes, mammals, and reptiles). Echinoderms are the largest phylum that has no freshwater or terrestrial members. The echinoderms are important both ecologically and geologically.

Echinoderms are important both ecologically and geologically. Ecologically, there are few other groupings so abundant in the biotic desert of the deep sea, as well as shallower oceans. Most echinoderms are able to reproduce asexually and regenerate tissue, organs, and limbs; in some cases, they can undergo complete regeneration from a single limb. Geologically, the value of echinoderms is in their ossified skeletons, which are major contributors to many limestone formations, and can provide valuable clues as to the geological environment. An interesting feature of the phylum Echinodermata is that all the organisms belonging to this phylum are marine.Till date, there have been no traces of any terrestrial or freshwater Echinoderms.These are multicellular organisms with well-developed organ systems. All the animals belonging to this phylum share the same characteristics features. They are colourful organisms with unique shapes.

The Echinoderms are found in sea-depths as well as in the intertidal zones. An interesting feature of the phylum Echinodermata is that all the organisms belonging to this phylum are marine. None of the organisms is freshwater or marine.The water vascular system present in echinoderms accounts for gaseous exchange, circulation of nutrients and waste elimination.

Echinoderms primarily use their tube feet to move about, though some sea urchins also use their spines. The tube feet typically have a tip shaped like a suction pad in which a vacuum can be created by contraction of muscles. This along with some stickiness provided by the secretion of mucus provides adhesion. Waves of tube feet contractions and relaxations move along the adherent surface and the animal moves slowly along.

The development of an echinoderm begins with a bilaterally symmetrical embryo, with a coeloblastula developing first. Gastrulation marks the opening of the “second mouth” that places echinoderms within the deuterostomes, and the mesoderm, which will host the skeleton, migrates inwards. The secondary body cavity, the coelom, forms by the partitioning of three body cavities. The larvae are mostly planktonic but in some species the eggs are retained inside the female and in some the female broods the larvae.

Echinoderms are globally distributed in almost all depths, latitudes and environments in the ocean. They reach highest diversity in reef environments but are also widespread on shallow shores, around the poles – refugia where crinoids are at their most abundant – and throughout the deep ocean, where bottom-dwelling and burrowing sea cucumbers are common – sometimes accounting for up to 90% of organisms. While almost all echinoderms are benthic – that is, they live on the sea floor – some sea-lilies can swim at great velocity for brief periods of time, and a few deep-sea sea cucumbers are fully floating.

CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

The phylum echinoderms is divided into five extant classes: Asteroidea (sea stars), Ophiuroidea (brittle stars), Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand dollars), Crinoidea (sea lilies or feather stars), and Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers).

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

1. They have a star-like appearance and are spherical or elongated.
2. They are exclusively marine animals.
3. The organisms are spiny-skinned.
4. They exhibit organ system level of organization. Most members have a circulatory system as well as a digestive system.
5. They are triploblastic and have a coelomic cavity.
6. The skeleton is made up of calcium carbonate.
7. They have an open circulatory system.
8. They respire through gills or cloacal respiratory tree.
9. They have a simple radial nervous system and the excretory system are absent.
10. The body is unsegmented with no distinct head. The mouth is present on the ventral side while the anus is on the dorsal side.

Economic importance of preservation

Microorganism  are economically important as these microorganisms are used by humans for many purposes. The beneficial uses of microorganism include the production of traditional foods such as fudge, yogurt, cheese, and vinegar. Microbes are also important in agriculture for the compost and fertilizer production.

Preservation has a positive economic impact on the communities that envision the potential benefits of thoughtful planning.

Preservation of open space, trails, parks and greenways creates jobs, enhances property values, expands local businesses, attracts new or relocating businesses, increases local tax revenues, decreases local government expenditures through the natural provision of ecosystem services, decreases the cost of recreation and promotes a sense of local community.

The following are economic importance of preserving microorganism:

1. Food processing: Sourdough bread is made to rise by fermentation, with a leaven that consists of microorganism, often combined with wild yeast enzymes.^[1] The milk-souring microorganisml genus Lactobacillus is used to make yogurt and cheese. Microorganism are also used to form organic acids in pickles and vinegar.
2. Biotechnology: Biotechnology involves the use of microorganisms including microorganism in the manufacturing and services industries. These include chemical manufacturing such as ethanol, acetone, organic acid, enzymes, and perfumes. Microorganism are important in the production of many dietary supplements and pharmaceuticals. For example, Escherichia coli is used for commercial preparation of riboflavin and vitamin K.^[3] E. coli is also used to produce D-amino acids such as D-p-hydroxyphenylglycine, an important intermediate for synthesis of the antibiotic amoxicillin.
3. Genetic engineering: Genetic engineering is the manipulation of gene. It is also called recombinant DNA technology. In genetic engineering, pieces of DNA (genes) are introduced into a host by a variety of techniques, one of the earliest being the use of a virus vector. The foreign DNA becomes a permanent feature of the host, and is replicated and passed on to daughter cells along with the rest of its DNA.^[5] Microorganisml cells are transformed and used in production of commercially important products. Examples include production of human insulin (used to treat diabetes)^[6] and human growth hormone (somatotrophin used to treat pituitary dwarfism).
4. Pest control: Microorganism can also be used in the place of pesticides in biological pest control. This commonly uses Bacillus thuringiensis (BT), a Gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium. This bacterium is used as a Lepidopteran-specific insecticide under trade names such as Dipel and Thuricide. Because of their specificity, these pesticides are regarded as environmentally friendly, with little effect on humans, wildlife, pollinators, or other beneficial insects.
5. Tanning Of Leather: Microorganism helps purify animal hides to make them easy, clean, and fit to use.

6.      Medicines: Microorganism are used to create multiple antibiotics such as Streptomycin from the microorganism streptococcus. Microorganism can also be used to create vaccines to prevent several diseases.

REFERENCES

1. Gadsby, P; Weeks, E. “The Biology of… Sourdough”. Discover. Discover Magazine. Retrieved September 16, 2019.
2. McGee, H (2004). On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. New York: Scribner, pp. 291–296. ISBN 0-684-80001-2.
3. Healthwise, Incorporated (2010-06-28). “Throat Culture”. WebMD. Archived from the original on 2013-03-17. Retrieved 2013-03-10.
4. Old, D.C.; Duguid, J.P. (1970). “Selective Outgrowth of Fimbriate Bacteria in Static Liquid Medium”. Journal of Bacteriology. American Madigan, Michael T. (2012). Brock biology of microorganisms (13th ed.). San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 9780321649638.
5. Stöhr, Sabine (2014). “Echinodermata”. WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species. Retrieved 23 February 2014.Richard Fox. “Asterias forbesi”. Invertebrate Anatomy OnLine. Lander University. Retrieved 19 May 2012.

Preservation Of Organism And List The Common Method Of Preservation Of Vertebrates And Invertebrate

Preservation Of Organism And List The Common Method Of Preservation Of Vertebrates And Invertebrate

Preservation is the act, process, or result of preserving something: such as a the activity or process of keeping something valued alive, intact, or free from damage or decay.

Microorganisms require special preservation methods in order to ensure optimal long-term viability and genetic stability. The preservation methods used in the collections may differ.

Storage in liquid nitrogen is one of the best methods for preserving all microorganisms. For some viruses, it may be better to freeze the sample rapidly, but slow freezing with a cryoprotective agent is desirable for all other organisms to retain maximum viability or infectivity.

Preservation of micro-organisms by desiccation has been the preferred method for long term storage of cultures for decades. There are extensive culture collections that depend on these drying methods to preserve a huge diversity of cells for future propagation. In addition to culture collections, food and pharmaceutical industries have found drying technologies to be the preferred methods for preserving a multitude of different food and drug preparations in bulk quantities. Even with this worldwide usage of drying technologies, it would appear that there are still many varied methods of desiccating micro-organisms and that there is no generic drying method for all applications

Methods of preservation of vertebrates and invertebrates

The following points highlight the top six methods that are used for preservation of organisms. The methods are:

1. Agar Slant Culture
2. Agar Slant Culture Covered with Oil
3. Saline Suspension
4. Preservation at Very Low Temperature
5. Preservation by Drying in Vacuum
6. Lyophilization or Freeze Drying.
7. Agar Slant Culture: Agar slants are prepared in vitro. After inoculation slants are incubated for a period of 24h and then stored in a refrigerator. These cultures require periodic transfer after six months.
8. Agar Slant Culture Covered with Oil: The agar slants are incubated after inoculation until profuse growth appears. These are then covered with sterile mineral oil to a depth of 1 cm above the tip of the slanted surface. Transfers are made by removing a loopful of growth; touching the loop to the glass surface to drain off excess oil in the medium and then preserving the initial block culture.
9. Saline Suspension: High concentration of sodium chloride is used as inhibitor of microorganisml growth. Microorganism are suspended in 1 % salt solution in screw cap tubes to prevent evaporation. The tubes are stored at room temperature and transfers are made on agar slants.
10. Preservation at Very Low Temperature: The organisms are suspended in a nutrient broth containing 15% glycerol, or in skimmed milk containing 7.5% glucose. The suspensions are frozen and stored at -15°C to -30°C.  The ready availability of liquid nitrogen (-196°C) has provided another means of preservation of stock cultures. In this procedure, the cultures are frozen with a protective agent (glycerol or dimethyl sulfoxide) in sealed ampules. The frozen cultures are kept in liquid nitrogen flask.
11. Preservation by Drying in Vacuum: The organisms are dried over CaCl₂ in a vacuum, then stored in the refrigerator. The organism survives longer than when air dried.
12. Lyophilization or Freeze Drying: The microbial suspension is placed in small vials. A thin film is frozen over the inside surface of the vial by rotating it in a mixture of dry ice or alcohol or acetone at a temperature of -78°C. The vials are connected to a high vacuum line. This dries the organism while still frozen. Finally, the ampoules are sealed off in a vacuum with a small flame.

Soap Production

Soap Production

AIM:

The aim of this assignment is to identify a particular product that can be produced by a company and explain the process of production and the plant machine used. Therefore, effort is made to explain in details the manufacturing process of soap.

INTRODUCTION

Soaps and detergents belong to the same group of chemical products called surface-active agents or surfactants. This group of products are, amongst other properties, well-known for their detergency which is due to a reduction in water surface tension which removes the dirt by wetting, emulsification, lathering and removal.

Soap production can be regarded as one area of business that is lucrative and needs only little capital to start with, and considering the vast available resources in Nigeria there is need to design and develop strategy on war footing in order to explore and utilize full benefits of these raw materials using the available indigenous technology.

The manufacturing of soaps and detergents is a complex process that involves different activities and processes. The size and complexity of these processes and activities may range from small manufacturing plants that employ a small number of people to those with hundreds and thousands of workers.

PRODUCTION PROCESS OF SOAP/DETERGENT

The first phase in the manufacturing of soaps and detergents is the selection of raw materials. Raw materials are selected on the basis of various factors, including – cost, human and environmental safety, compatibility with other ingredients, and the performance characteristics and appearance of the final product. While the actual production process may vary from company to company and manufacturer to manufacturer, there are some steps, which are common to all types of cleaning products.

The industrial soap making involves four basis steps –

• Saponification
• Glycerin Removal
• Soap Purification
• Finishing

These different steps involve various processing steps and operations in their own. A brief description of these different steps is given below –

1. Saponification: The saponification process involves the mixing of tallow (animal fat) and coconut oil with sodium hydroxide and the application of heat. The process results in formation of soap, which is a salt of long chain carboxylic acid
2. Glycerin Removal: Glycerin is more valuable than soap, and hence most of it is removed for its uses in more expensive cosmetic products. Some of the glycerin is left in the soap to make it soft and smooth. Soap is generally not very soluble in salt water, while glycerin is, hence the salt is added to the wet soap thereby causing it to separate out into glycerin and soap in salty water.
3. Soap Purification: In the soap purification stage, any remaining sodium hydroxide is neutralized with a weak acid, like citric acid and two thirds of the remaining water is removed to obtain pure soap.
4. Finishing: The final stage of industrial soap manufacturing process, finishing stage involves mixing of additives, such as colors, preservatives, and perfume into soap, which is then shaped into bars for sale.

PACKAGING

The final stage of the detergents and soap manufacturing process is the packaging. In this stage, the finished product is packed for final supply to consumer. During the packaging stage, bar soaps are either wrapped or cartooned in single packs or multipacks. Detergents, including household cleaners, dishwashing cleansers and laundry cleansers are packaged in cartons, bottles, pouches, bags or cans.

SOAP PACKAGING BENEFITS

Packaging is one of most important steps in soaps and detergents manufacturing and hence should be given prime consideration by soap and detergents manufacturers. Some of the important benefits of soap packaging include –

• Enhances the marketability of product
• Improves the appearance and attractiveness of product
• Increases the shelf appeal of product
• Increases the shelf life of product
• Reduces the waste during production
• Makes the product easy and convenient to use
• The product can be packed in different sizes to meet the varying demands of consumers

PLANTS AND MACHINE USED IN SOAP MANUFACTURING

Machines / plants used in soap making as shown in the flow chart above are:

• Soap mixer
• Soap Roller
• Soap duplex Plodder
• Soap Sircular Bar Cutting machine
• Soap Cutting machine for soap cakes
• Soap Stamping machine

CONSTRAINTS IN THE PRODUCTION OF SOAP IN NIGERIA

1. Access to capital & credit. Lack of financial capital is the single most significant challenge when it comes to doing business in Nigeria. Even with the conceptualization and implementation of financial programs meant to support businesses, the government has always been in a struggling position to ensure that financial capital is easily made accessible to entrepreneurs. In most cases, entrepreneurs have to turn to personal savings, business loans, families and friends, or government grants to get financial capital for business.

2. Electricity / Power Supply: Getting access to constant electricity and a power supply is a major concern for business in Nigeria. an average household in Nigeria can only have access to 6 hours uninterrupted power supply out of the 24 hours that exist in a given day. This is why the use of generators as an alternative power source is so common in Nigeria.

3. Government regulations: The government plays a major role in the decision of how business gets done in Nigeria. No government or economic system leaves all decisions about doing business to the market. These regulations are meant to keep businesses in-check and ensure that follow a common rule. The law that guides doing business is known as Companies & Allied Matters Act (CAMA).

4. Corruption & Bribery. While Nigeria is among the world’s leading investment destinations and is formally a well-functioning business environment, corruption and bribery are still serious obstacles. The federal structure of the political system means there is a wide range of regulatory agencies, which can lead to demands for bribes from public officials.

5. Market developments:  There is also market risk around the fact that there is global uncertainty around economic growth. When you are unsure of the direction that the entire economy is going to take, it makes business planning and strategy development a great deal more difficult and risky.