Communication
Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another. Although this is a simple definition, when we think about how we may communicate the subject becomes a lot more complex. There are various categories of communication and more than one may occur at any time.
The different categories of communication are:
- Spoken or Verbal Communication: face-to-face, telephone, radio or television and other media.
- Non-Verbal Communication: body language, gestures, how we dress or act – even our scent.
- Written Communication: letters, e-mails, books, magazines, the Internet or via other media.
- Visualizations: graphs and charts, maps, logos and other visualizations can communicate messages.
The process of interpersonal communication cannot be regarded as a phenomena which simply ‘happens’, but should be seen as a process which involves participants negotiating their role in this process, whether consciously or unconsciously.
Senders and receivers are of course vital in communication. In face-to-face communication the roles of the sender and receiver are not distinct as both parties communicate with each other, even if in very subtle ways such as through eye-contact (or lack of) and general body language. There are many other subtle ways that we communicate (perhaps even unintentionally) with others, for example the tone of our voice can give clues to our mood or emotional state, whilst hand signals or gestures can add to a spoken message.
In written communication the sender and receiver are more distinct. Until recent times, relatively few writers and publishers were very powerful when it came to communicating the written word. Today we can all write and publish our ideas on the Internet, which has led to an explosion of information and communication possibilities.
The Communication Process
A message or communication is sent by the sender through a communication channel to a receiver, or to multiple receivers. The sender must encode the message (the information being conveyed) into a form that is appropriate to the communication channel, and the receiver(s) then decodes the message to understand its meaning and significance.
Misunderstanding can occur at any stage of the communication process. Effective communication involves minimising potential misunderstanding and overcoming any barriers to communication at each stage in the communication process. See our page: Barriers to Effective Communication for more information.
An effective communicator understands their audience, chooses an appropriate communication channel, hones their message to this channel and encodes the message to reduce misunderstanding by the receiver(s). They will also seek out feedback from the receiver(s) as to how the message is understood and attempt to correct any misunderstanding or confusion as soon as possible. Receivers can use Clarification and Reflection as effective ways to ensure that the message sent has been understood correctly.
Communication Channels
Communication theory states that communication involves a sender and a receiver (or receivers) conveying information through a communication channel.
Communication Channels is the term given to the way in which we communicate. There are multiple communication channels available to us today, for example face-to-face conversations, telephone calls, text messages, email, the Internet (including social media such as Facebook and Twitter), radio and TV, written letters, brochures and reports to name just a few.
Choosing an appropriate communication channel is vital for effective communication as each communication channel has different strengths and weaknesses. For example, broadcasting news of an upcoming event via a written letter might convey the message clearly to one or two individuals but will not be a time or cost effective way to broadcast the message to a large number of people. On the other hand, conveying complex, technical information is better done via a printed document than via a spoken message since the receiver is able to assimilate the information at their own pace and revisit items that they do not fully understand. Written communication is also useful as a way of recording what has been said, for example taking minutes in a meeting.
Encoding Messages
All messages must be encoded into a form that can be conveyed by the communication channel chosen for the message. We all do this every day when transferring abstract thoughts into spoken words or a written form. However, other communication channels require different forms of encoding, e.g. text written for a report will not work well if broadcast via a radio programme, and the short, abbreviated text used in text messages would be inappropriate if sent via a letter. Complex data may be best communicated using a graph or chart or other visualisation.
Effective communicators encode their messages with their intended audience in mind as well as the communication channel. This involves an appropriate use of language, conveying the information simply and clearly, anticipating and eliminating likely causes of confusion and misunderstanding, and knowing the receivers’ experience in decoding other similar communications. Successful encoding of messages is a vital skill in effective communication.
Decoding Messages
Once received, the receivers need to decode the message, and successful decoding is also a vital skill. Individuals will decode and understand messages in different ways based upon any Barriers to Communication which might be present, their experience and understanding of the context of the message, their psychological state, and the time and place of receipt as well as many other potential factors. Understanding how the message will be decoded, and anticipating as many of the potential sources of misunderstanding as possible, is the art of a successful communicator.
Feedback
Receivers of messages are likely to provide feedback on how they have understood the messages through both verbal and non-verbal reactions. Effective communicators should pay close attention to this feedback as it the only way to assess whether the message has been understood as intended, and it allows any confusion to be corrected. Bear in mind that the extent and form of feedback will vary according to the communication channel used: for example feedback during a face-to-face or telephone conversation will be immediate and direct, whilst feedback to messages conveyed via TV or radio will be indirect and may be delayed, or even conveyed through other media such as the Internet.
There are four main problems that prevent people from writing complete, grammatically correct sentences. These problems include: (a) the sentence fragment; (b) the run-on sentence; (c) lack of subject-verb and pronoun-reference agreement; and (d) la ck of parallel structure.
Sentence Fragments
A fragment is a sentence which is not complete, and therefore not grammatically correct. Sentence fragments are problematic because they are disjointed and confusing to the reader. There are three main causes of fragments: (a) a missing subject; (b) a missing verb; (c) “danger” words which are not finished.
There are three ways to check for sentence completeness:
1. Find the subject. A subject is the noun or pronoun about which something is written. To find the subject of a sentence, identify who or what is doing the action. If there is no subject, the sentence is a fragment. Consider the two examples below.
“The student felt nervous before the speech.”
“Thought about leaving the room.”
The first sentence above is complete, because it contains both a subject and a verb. The subject of this sentence is the student. The sentence contains a subject which answers the question, “who or what felt nervous?” The second sentence is a fragment, because there is no identifiable subject. The sentence does not contain a subject which answers the question, “who or what thought about leaving?” To correct the second sentence, one could write: “He thought about leaving the room.” Alternatively, on e could combine the two sentences to form one complete sentence: “The student felt nervous before the speech, and thought about leaving the room.”
2. Find the verb. A verb is the action word in a sentence. Verbs express action, existence or occurrence. To find the verb in a sentence, identify what happened. If there is no identifiable action, the sentence is a fragment. Consider the two examples below.
“Many scientists, such as Einstein, think in strange ways.”
“Many scientists think in strange ways. Einstein, for example.”
This first example above has one complete sentence followed by a fragment. “Einstein, for example” is a fragment because there is no verb. “Einstein” serves as the subject (he is the one doing something), but the rest of the sentence does not express wh at action he is taking. The second example is a complete sentence. In this case, the sentence contains both a subject (scientists) and a verb (think). Alternatively, one could write the following: “Many scientists think in strange ways. Einstein, for example, could not tolerate more than one bar of soap in his home.” In this case, there are two complete sentences. In the second sentence, the subject is Einstein and the verb is “could not tolerate.”
3. Check for “danger” words. A danger word is one which introduces a thought that requires a follow-up phrase. Such words are sometimes called “cliff-hangers” because they begin a statement, but leave it “hanging” without a finish. Consider the phrases below.
“If you come home…”
“When the rain falls…”
“Because he is mean…”
The danger words in the sentences above are “if,” “when” and “because.” When these words are used at the beginning of a phrase, they require a follow-up phrase to conclude the thought.
Example: If you come home on time…then what?
Correct: If you come home on time, I will buy you a present.
Example: When it rains…what happens?
Correct: When it rains, the gutters become clogged.
Example: Because he is mean…what is the result?
Correct: Because he is mean, I will not take a class from him.
Danger words are helpful when writing sentences, but one must be sure to include a concluding phrase when these words are used.
Commonly used danger words include: after, unless, although, how, as if, when, because, where, before, while, if, until, once, so that, since, whether.
Run-on Sentences
A run-on sentence is one which actually contains two (or more) complete sentences without the proper punctuation to create separate sentences. There are two common forms of the run-on: (1) the “comma splice” in which a comma is inserted between two comp lete sentences where a period should actually be used; (2) a lack of punctuation where a semi-colon or period is needed.
Incorrect Examples – The Comma Splice
John is a musician, he plays the guitar for a living.
The girl walked home, she decided not to ride the bus.
He could only guess at the number of guests who attended the party, the entire yard was filled with people.
In each of the examples above, the two sentences are incorrectly joined by a comma, thus “splicing” two complete sentences together into one run-on sentence. To correct these run-on’s, the comma should be replaced by a period, thus creating two separate sentences, as shown below.
Correct Examples
John is a musician. He plays the guitar for a living.
The girl walked home. She decided not to ride the bus.
He could only guess at the number of guests who attended the party. The entire yard was filled with people.
Incorrect Examples – Lack of Punctuation
There is a problem with the television however no one is available to fix it.
Nobody knows what really happened the policeman said there was a fight.
That is the problem when people have conflict they attack each other personally.
In each of the examples above, some type of punctuation is needed to separate the two parts of the sentence: either a semi-colon or a period.
Correct Examples
There is a problem with the television; however, no one is available to fix it.
There is a problem with the television. However, no one is available to fix it.
Nobody knows what really happened; the policeman said there was a fight.
Nobody knows what really happened. The policeman said there was a fight.
That is the problem when people have conflict; they attack each other personally.
That is the problem when people have conflict. They attack each other personally.
Subject-Verb Agreement
In order for a sentence to be grammatically correct, the subject and verb must both be singular or plural. In other words, the subject and verb must agree with one another in their tense. If the subject is in plural form, the verb should also be in plur al form (and vice versa). To ensure subject-verb agreement, identify the main subject and verb in the sentence, then check to see if they are both plural or singular. Consider the examples below.
Incorrect examples – Subject-Verb Agreement
“The group of students are complaining about grades.”
The main subject in this sentence is “group,” which is singular. The main verb is “are complaining,” which is plural.
“A recipe with more than six ingredients are too complicated.”
The main subject in this sentence is “recipe,” which is singular. The main verb is “are,” which is plural.
“The facts in that complex case is questionable.”
The main subject in this sentence is “facts,” which is plural. The main verb, “is,” is singular.
“The people is wearing formal attire.”
The main subject in this sentence is “people,” which is plural. The main verb is “is wearing,” which is singular.
Correct examples
“The group of students is complaining about grades.”
“A recipe with more than six ingredients is too complicated.”
“The facts in that complex case are questionable.”
“The people are wearing formal attire.”
A variation of the subject-verb agreement is pronoun-reference agreement. In the case of pronoun-reference agreement, all of the pronouns should agree with one another in singular or plural tense. Consider the examples below.
Incorrect examples – Pronoun-Reference Agreement
“A manager should always be honest with their employees.”
The subject in this sentence, “manager,” is singular. The corresponding pronoun, “their,” is plural.
“Organizations must be careful about discriminating against its employees.”
The subject in this sentence is “organizations,” which is plural. The corresponding pronoun, “its,” is singular.
“If you really care about somebody, let them make their own choices.”
In this sentence, the pronoun “somebody” is singular, but the corresponding pronouns, “them” and “their” are plural.
Correct examples
“A manager should always be honest with his (or her) employees.”
“Organizations must be careful about discriminating against their employees.”
“If you really care about somebody, let him (or her) make his (or her) own choices.”
Parallel Structure
The parallel structure of a sentence refers to the extent to which different parts of the sentence match each other in form. When more than one phrase or description is used in a sentence, those phrases or descriptions should be consistent with one an other in their form and wording. Parallel structure is important because it enhances the ease with which the reader can follow the writer’s idea. Consider the following examples.
Incorrect examples – Parallel Structure
Example One: “He is strong and a tough competitor.”
Notice that “strong” and “a tough competitor” are not the in the same form. “Strong” and “competitive” are consistent in form.
Example Two: “The new coach is a smart strategist, an effective manager, and works hard.”
Notice that “a smart strategist” and “an effective manager” are consistent with one another, but not consistent with “works hard.”
Example Three: “In the last minute of the game, John intercepted the football, evaded the tacklers, and a touchdown was scored.”
Notice that the first two phrases in this sentence are consistent with one another: “intercepted the football” and “evaded the tacklers.” However, the final phrase, “and a touchdown was scored” is not consistent with the first two phrases. Correct examples
Example One: “He is strong and competitive.”
Example Two: “The new coach is a smart strategist, an effective manager, and a hard worker.”
